1. Alekseev, A. I. 1987. The odyssey of a Russian scientist: I. G. Voznesenskii in Alaska, California and Siberia 1839-1849. Kingston, Ontario, Canada: The Limestone Press. 139 pages.
COMMENT: I. G. Voznesenskii collected at least four California condor specimens in California, as well as a condor skin used in a Native American ceremony and one or more capes made of condor and eagle feathers. This publication does not give details of Voznesenskii's collecting activities, but gives a good chronology of where he was at various times (which helps identify where condor specimens were collected). He sailed from Sitka 7 July 1840 on the "Elena," landing at Bodega Bay 20 July 1840. He was at Bodega Bay until 30 July 1840, when he left for Fort Ross. He collected intensively over the next couple months, making a long trip to Cape Mendocino and back in September or early October, and in October 1840 sent 10 crates of California biological and ethnological specimens to Russia on the "Nicolai I" headed from San Francisco to Sitka. On 23 October 1840 he rode horseback to San Rafael, then canoed to San Francisco. Between October 1840 and mid February 1841, he visited all parts of the San Francisco Bay area. On 20 February 1841 he went by boat to Sutter's Fort, and explored and collected in the vicinity until 2 April 1841. [While at Sutter's Fort, he acquired a condor feather cape.] He returned to San Francisco, and on 11 April 1841 he rode horseback from San Rafael back to Fort Ross. He and A. G. Rotchev collected many birds around Fort Ross. In May and June 1841, he traveled the entire length of the Russian River, and on 16 June 1841 made the first ascent of Mt. St. Helens. In July 1841, Fort Ross was sold and all the Russians moved back to Bodega Bay. Voznesenskii continued exploring and collecting from there until he sailed for Sitka 5 September 1841.
See also References 7 and 12.

2. Anonymous. 1854. [Museum accession notes.] Proceedings California Academy of Sciences 1:70-71.
A. C. Taylor donated to the Academy condor feathers, collected "in the vicinity of the Red Woods of Contra Costa."
COMMENT: The "Red Woods of Contra Costa" would place this collection site in the hills behind Oakland or Berkeley, California, and might indicate a regular roost or even a nest location.

3. Audubon, J. J. 1839. Ornithological Biography, Volume 5, pp. 240-245.
"Of the three species of Vulture which inhabit the southern parts of North America, this is so much superior in size to the rest that it bears to them the same proportion as a Golden Eagle to a Goshawk. It inhabits the valleys and plains of the western slope of the continent, and has not been observed to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains. Mr. [John Kirk] Townsend, who has had opportunities of observing it, has favoured me with the following account of its habits.
'The Californian Vulture inhabits the region of the Columbia river, to the distance of five hundred miles from its mouth, and is most abundant in spring, at which season it feeds on the dead salmon that are thrown upon the shores in great numbers. It is also often met with near the Indian villages, being attracted by the offal of the fish thrown around the habitations. It associates with Cathartes Aura, but is easily distinguished from that species in flight, both by its greater size and the more abrupt curvature of its wing. The Indians, whose observations may generally be depended upon, say that it ascertains the presence of food solely by its power of vision, thus corroborating your own remarks on the vulture tribe generally. On the upper waters of the Columbia the fish intended for winter store are usually deposited in huts made of the branches of trees interlaced. I have frequently seen the Ravens attempt to effect a lodgement in these deposits, but have never known the Vulture to be engaged in this way, although these birds were numerous in the immediate vicinity.'
"In a subsequent notice, he continues: 'I have never seen the eggs of the Californian Vulture. The Indians of the Columbia say that it breeds on the ground, fixing its nest in swamps under the pine forests, chiefly in the Alpine country. The Wallammet [i.e., Willamette] Mountains, seventy or eighty miles south of the Columbia, are said to be its favourite places of resort. I have never visited the mountains at that season, and therefore cannot speak from my own knowledge. It is seen on the Columbia only in summer, appearing about the first of June, and retiring, probably to the mountains, about the end of August. It is particularly attached to the vicinity of cascades and falls, being attracted by the dead salmon which strew the shores in such places. The salmon, in their attempts to leap over the obstruction, become exhausted, and are cast up on the beaches in great numbers. Thither, therefore, resort all the unclean birds of the country, such as the present species, the Turkey-Buzzard, and the Raven. The Californian Vulture cannot, however, be called a plentiful species, as even in the situations mentioned it is rare to see more than two or three at a time, and these so shy as not to allow an approach to within a hundred yards, unless by stratagem. Although I have frequently seen this bird I have never heard it utter any sound. The eggs I have never seen, nor have I had any account of them that I could depend upon.
'In a former letter you ask me, What is the color of the eyes? Do they attack living animals? Do they feed on reptiles, fishes, or what? Where do they roost? Do they carry the tail upwards while walking? Are they pugnacious? What is their manner of flight, &c? The color of the eye is dark hazel. I have never heard of them attacking living animals. Their food while on the Columbia is fish almost exclusively, as in the neighbourhood of the rapids and falls it is always in abundance; they also, like other Vultures, feed on dead animals. I once saw two near Fort Vancouver feeding on the carcass of a pig that had died. I have not seen them at roost. In walking they resemble a Turkey, strutting over the ground with great dignity; but this dignity is occasionally lost sight of, especially when two are striving to reach a dead fish, which has just been cast on the shore; the stately walk then degenerates into a clumsy sort of hopping canter, which is any thing but graceful. When about to rise, they always hop or run for several yards, in order to give an impetus to their heavy body, in this resembling the Condor of South America, whose well known habit furnishes the natives with an easy mode of capturing him by means of a narrow pen, in which a dead carcass has been deposited. If I should return to the Columbia, I will try this method of taking the Vulture, and I am satisfied that it would be successful.'"
COMMENT: In his comments to Audubon, John K. Townsend contradicts himself regarding the seasonal status of condors on the Columbia River, noting that they are "seen on the Columbia only in summer, appearing about the first of June," but also that they are "most abundant in the spring." Townsend's only specific record is from April [Reference 73]: "This is the only specimen I was ever able to procure; for although, during the spring, I constantly saw the Vultures at all points where the Salmon were cast upon the shore, their extreme shyness uniformly prevented an approach to within gun-shot."
Townsend is certainly incorrect in his statement to Audubon that "the Californian Vulture inhabits the region of the Columbia river, to the distance of five hundred miles from its mouth." Only two certain records are from greater than 150 miles from the mouth of the Columbia.

4. Banks, R. C. 1971. Data on condor specimens in the National Museum (letter to Sanford R. Wilbur).
On 28 January 1971, Dick Banks (Chief, Bird and Mammal Laboratories) provided a description of all California condor material in the Museum collections. Among the records was the following:
"78005 in ink on a Smithsonian label. In pencil: =2717 and =73053. Attached by a paper clip is a large label (7 _ x 1 inches) that reads Cathartes californianus (Lath.) Ranz. N. 2717. Columbia River. J. K. T. There is nothing on the back of this label. Attached to this label and the routine specimen label is a note written in pencil: 'This label found among a lot of old bones and skulls. The skin may have been converted into an osteological one.' This specimen is a juv."
COMMENT: This is almost certainly a label from the only condor specimen known to have been collected by John Kirk Townsend: April 1835 near Willamette Falls, Oregon.

5. Barrett, S. A. 1908. The ethno-geography of the Pomo and neighboring tribes. University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology 6(1).
Pages 13-14, Fauna of the area: While this region has been settled by the whites so long that little idea may be had from observation concerning the abundance and variety of game which the Indian formerly counted as a resource, there are still areas where deer are fairly plentiful and where a mountain lion or black bear is occasionally found. Since the coming of firearms, the elk, formerly very plentiful, and the grizzly, the only animal much feared by the Indians, have entirely disappeared. Though the larger wolf has also
disappeared the coyote has not. This interesting character of Indian mythology is still present, though in diminished numbers. The lynx is still found frequently. Smaller animals such as raccoons, civets, rabbits, squirrels, and others are also abundant. Water mammals have almost all disappeared.
Among the birds which are of importance to the Indians, the two species of so-called quail, the valley quail, Lophortyx Californicus; and the mountain quail, Oreortyx pictus, are among the first. Another is the California woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus. These three species are common throughout the region. Along the coast there occur the usual species of water birds, and certain of these, such as ducks, herons, loons, and others, are found in greater or less numbers about Clear lake throughout the year. Various hawks and the turkey buzzard are common throughout the region, and in former times the condor, or California vulture, was also to be found. The various species of smaller
birds are yet plentiful.
Linguistics: The Pomo word for condor in six districts was sÛl, ÌsÛl in the Southwest, and hÛlsÛrÛ-ka in the Northeast. In the Moquelumnan, Yuki, in the West, South and North it is mÔlok; in the Wappo, tsÛts; and in the Huchnom and Yuki, pal. There is no word for condor in the Coast Moquelumnan.
In the Wintun languages, condor is molok, mÔlÔk, or mÛl.
There is an old Pomo campsite in the Valley Division, a mile north of McDonald (Hopland area), that was called sÛlmÔ; that is, "condor hole."
COMMENT: These comments indicate that the California condor was well-known to the Pomo of Mendocino, Sonoma and Lake counties, California. The identification of a site called "condor hole" conjures up questions about condor nesting in the area.

6. Barrett, S. A. 1952. Material aspects of Pomo culture. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, Volume 20, Part I.
Pp. 33-34, the word for condor in the Southeastern Dialect area of the Pomos is sÛl. Also, citing Gifford and Kroeber 1937 (Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archeol. Ethnol 37:117-254): sul, Central Dialect; istun, and ihsun, in Southern Dialect. Loeb 1926 (Univ. Calif. Publ. Amer. Archeol. Ethnol. 19:149-405) gives sul as the word for condor in the Central Dialect.
P. 101: "The California condor was the largest bird in the region, but even in ancient times it was very rare. Statements differ regarding the methods of taking these birds. Some informants maintained that they were snared, using carrion as bait. Some stated that they were shot with bow and arrow, but that they were so hard to kill that only when they were hit in the head could they be taken. One informant stated that the young were taken from the nest and reared in captivity. Another informant stated that no pets or captive creatures of any kind were ever kept by the Pomo, which is certainly incorrect.
"The condor was never used for food. Its chief use was in supplying feathers and down both of which were utilized in making certain articles of ceremonial apparel. Chief among these was the ceremonial skirt in which the long feathers of the wings and tail were used. The condor was so very large that when its whole skin was dried with the wings outstretched it would completely cover a man. Such costumes were used in certain ceremonies.
"The bones, particularly those of the wings, were used in making whistles and ear ornaments.
"The fat taken from the abdominal cavity of the condor was used as a medicine. One informant stated that he knew of a case in which smallpox was cured by the use of this remedy.
"The buzzard or turkey vulture was very much more common than the condor. Its flesh was never used but its larger feathers were much employed in making articles of ceremonial apparel."
P. 111, among the food taboos of the Pomo was the condor. It was never eaten because it was considered "a great doctor."
P. 133, capturing techniques: "The bow and arrow was used not only for hunting game where stalking was necessary, but also for shooting from a blind. The blind was a small brush shelter from which the hunter could shoot through one or more loopholes. In taking such large birds as vultures and eagles, a suitable bait was placed in front of the blind to attract the birds."
Pp. 140, 147, capturing techniques: "The toggle hook or gorge hook was used to a very limited extent in taking some of the larger species of land birds, such as the condor (The toggle hook) consisted of a small, straight bone sharpened at either end. It was about an inch and a half or two inches in length and had a short line attached to its middle It was baited When the bird had swallowed the bait (and pulled on the line, the hook imbedded itself, and the line kept the bird from flying away)."
COMMENT: Although the condor was considered "very rare" in Sonoma and Mendocino counties, California, even "in ancient times," the rest of the record indicates regular contact with the species. The possibility of local nesting is suggested by the remembrance of young condors being taken from the nest and raised in captivity.

7. Bates, C. D. 1983. The California Collection of I.G.Voznesenski. American Indian Art 8(3):36-41, 79.
"In 1840 and 1841, the Russian-American Company's ship Nikolai made repeated voyages between California and Alaska Packed in wooden crates by the young scientist I. G. Voznesenski, were artifacts that represented the material culture and wealth of the native people of central California. Among the cargo was a variety of ceremonial regalia including a cloak of condor feathers, woven belts decorated with beads and feathers feathered capes and headgear a woven feather robe This collection eventually made its way to Leningrad."
"Ivan Gavrilovich Voznesenski was born in 1816 in St. Petersburg. The son of an employee of the Academy of Sciences, he received no formal education beyond the elementary level, and at the young age of eleven was placed as an apprentice at the Zoological Museum in the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1829 he accompanied a scientific expedition to the Caucasus and Transcaucasia and, upon his return, he was assigned as an apprentice to the curator of the Academy. In 1834, at the age of eighteen, he obtained the position of laboratory assistant at the Academy's Zoological Museum."
"A report presented at the Conference of Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1839 told of the necessity of dispatching a naturalist to the Russian colonies on the Northwest Coast of America to assemble zoological and botanical collections. In August of that year the conference selected Voznesenski as the naturalist, and charged him with the additional duties of obtaining artifacts from the native people to add to the Ethnographic Museum of the Kunstkammer of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences."
"After spending a month near Baranof Island, Voznesenski sailed for California on July 7, 1840, aboard the Russian-American Company's ship, the Helena. His collecting began upon arrival in California, where he visited widely scattered points throughout the central portion of the state such as Fort Ross, Bodega Bay, Cape Mendocino, San Francisco, Santa Clara, San Jose, San Leandro, San Pablo, Pinole, Napa, Petaluma, Sonoma and Sacramento. After spending more than a year collecting in California, he left for Alaska on September 5, 1841."
Apparently few notes or specimen records exist for Voznesenski's work, but there are a few pertinent journal entries that show where he was at certain times. For example: "On February 20 [1841], the long-awaited chance presented itself to gofrom San Francisco up the Sacramento River to the property of Captain Sutter, which he called 'New Helvetia.' I spent 31 days on the then virginal banks of the Pele (as the local Indians call it) Accompanying Mr. Sutter around his land, which the Mexican government had just ceded to him, we reached the Monte des Trois Buttes, crossed the (now) gold bearing rivers Rio de la Plume and Tio Kiski en des Americaine a few times and spent the nights along their banks."
"No doubt Sutter's power was crucial in Voznesenski's obtaining objects that would have been otherwise difficult to secure. Two unique objects, one an enveloping cloak of crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) feathers, the other the skin of a California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) are extremely rare in ethnographic collections, and are among the most supernaturally powerful items from a native standpoint. Voznesenski relates: 'When I brought the mollok and kukshui costumes to the Sacramento River, the Indians who saw them were terrified and were astonished that I could keep such a thing in my room ' A study of the terms used to describe these ceremonial garments - molok and kukshui - helps us to narrow the possible place of collection of the two pieces The word molok associated with an entire skin of the condor used in a dance honoring the bird is found among the Valley Nisenan at the village of Pujune which is only two miles distant from the village of Seku that Voznesenski visited and even closer to Sutter's home. Data for neighboring Plains Miwok people's dances is lacking; but their Sierran relatives, the Central Miwok, used an entire condor skin in the moloku, a dance honoring the condor which suggests that the intervening Plains Miwok could have had a similar dance."
"Other objects in the collection include a feather dance cape made primarily of California condor feathers, with the entire tail of a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) attached to the tie cord This piece is similar to those produced by a variety of California peoples and bears no distinguishing characteristics with which to ascribe a specific tribal origin."
The article has photographs of both the condor-eagle feather cape, and the condor dance skin.
COMMENT: see also References 1 and 11. I have records of Voznesenski collecting four condor specimens, two of which were definitely from what is now Sonoma County, California. I have assumed that all four skins came from Sonoma County, but this record showing that Voznesneski apparently acquired a condor ceremonial skin ("molok") near Sacramento raises the possibility that one or more of his condor specimens came from the Sacramento Valley, as well.

8. Belding, L. 1878. Letter from Lyman Belding to Robert Ridgway, 21 March 1878 (copy in Smithsonian Institution Archives).
Belding wrote to Ridgway about a number of ornithological topics. In part, the letter reads: "I have never shot a Cal Condor, have seen a few along Feather River in former years & a few in Mendocino Co."
COMMENT: The Feather River records are probably the same as the Yuba County sightings in Reference 9. It would be fascinating to know where in Mendocino County Belding saw condors. Although Native Americans in Mendocino County were well acquainted with condors, this is one of only two Caucasian reports for the county (see also Reference 18).

9. Belding, L. 1879. A partial list of the birds of central California. Proceedings U. S. National Museum 1:388-449.
Belding described the California condor as "very rare" in the Sacramento Valley, but seen on two or three occasions in Yuba County, California, in the winter.
COMMENT: These observations were probably the same as those from the Feather River, Reference 8.

10. Belding, L. 1890. Land birds of the Pacific district. Occasional Papers, California Academy of Sciences 2:1-274.
Quotes William Proud as noting that California condors are sometimes seen near Chico, Butte County, California.
COMMENT: I haven't been able to find anything more specific regarding the Proud records. He was an early and long-term resident of the area.

11. Blake, E. R. 1971. California condor specimens in the Chicago Field Museum collection (materials sent to Sanford R. Wilbur 26 January 1971 and 24 March 1971).
Condor specimen #39613 was shot in the mountains north of San Francisco, Marin County, California, between 1900-1905. The Museum purchased it from the Northwestern School of Taxidermy, Omaha, Nebraska, in September 1910. The collector is unnamed in their files.
COMMENT: This is one of the most recent dates for a condor north of San Francisco. I haven't been able to identify the collector or the month of collecting.
Specimen record #2909, two California condor eggs collected July 1879 in Santa Cruz County, California by W. A. Cooper. The eggs were donated to the Museum 28 September 1943 by R. M. Barnes (assession number 7534).
COMMENT: In the "Nidiologist" in 1895 [3(4-5):42], H. R. Taylor referred to two eggs taken in 1879 that were "in possession of a gentleman in California." No location data were given, but this note likely refers to the Chicago Field Museum eggs. Carl Koford (Reference 43, pages 11 and 139) was skeptical of the collecting locality, although he gave no reason. Perhaps he equated it with the (certainly erroneous) record of two condor eggs in the same nest in a redwood tree [G. F. Breninger, in H. R. Taylor, Nidiologist 1895, 2(6):73-79]. There seems to be no reason to discount the record, which is the farthest north certain record for condor nesting.

12. Blomkvist, E. E. 1972. A Russian Scientific Expedition to California & Alaska 1839-1849, The Drawings of I. G. Voznesenski." Oregon Historical Quarterly 73 (2):100-170.
COMMENT: As the title implies, the article is mostly about Voznesenski's drawings, but it also gives dates for when Voznesenski was at various places in California (which helps identify where and when he collected condors).
1 July 1840, left Sitka, Alaska, aboard the "Elena," arrived at Bodega Bay ca 13 July 1840. Spent 13 July to 1 August 1840 at Bodega Bay, then moved to Fort Ross. While at Fort Ross, he made a trip north to Cape Mendocino. On 13 November 1840 he was in San Francisco, and was around San Francisco Bay until April 1841, when he returned to Fort Ross. [NOTE: this article doesn't say it, but part of the time he was in the San Francisco Bay area, he was actually at Sacramento.] In May and June 1841 he explored the Russian River, and was with the first party to climb Mt St. Helena. The Fort Ross settlement was sold in July 1841, and all the Russians moved back to Bodega Bay. He sailed back on Sitka beginning 5 September 1841. [NOTE: the dates are slightly different than those given by Alekseev 1987 (Reference 1), the latter probably being more accurate.]

13. Bright, W., and S. Gehr. 2005. Karuk dictionary. Karuk Tribe of California.
( http://corpus.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~karuk/karuk-lexicon.xml? )
Karuk word for California condor: achvivhaam ("big bird")
COMMENT: The Karuk lived in western Siskiyou County, California, near the Klamath River drainage.

14. Brodkorb, P. 1964l. Catalogue of fossil birds. Part 2, Anseriformes through Galliformes. Bulletin of Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences 8(3):195-335.
Pages 250-258, summary of fossil evidence of condors. There are cave deposits from the Upper Pleistocene in Shasta County, California (Samwell Cave, and Potter [Stone Man] Cave), presumed to be Gymnogyps amplus, the Pleistocene counterpart of the California condor. Prehistoric sites for G. californianus included Brookings [Reference 54] and Five Mile Rapids [References 35 and 56] in Oregon, and Emeryville, California.
COMMENT: These prehistoric sites of condors are discussed in other references.

15. Brooks, A., and H. S. Swarth. 1925. A distributional list of the birds of British Columbia. Pacific Coast Avifauna Number 17.
Page 130, List of birds ascribed to British Columbia on unsatisfactory grounds:
California Condor. Status: "Mouth of Fraser River. Seldom visits the interior" (Lord 1866, vol. 2, p. 291). "In September 1880 I saw two of these birds at Burrard Inlet. It is more than probable they are accidental visitants here" (Fannin 1891, p. 22). "Seen on Lulu Island as late as 'three or four years ago' by Mr. W. London. 'None seen since, used to be common'" (Rhoads 1893d, p. 39). This species may once have ranged north to the British Columbia boundary, but the above statements, the only ones known to us bearing upon the case, are not conclusive evidence.
COMMENT: The authors were right to be skeptical of most British Columbia records, just because the reporters included so little concrete information. However, taken as a group (references cited in this paper, plus those of Douglas [Reference 22] and Tolmie [Reference 71], it does appear that condors occasionally ranged as far north as southern British Columbia

16. Bryant, W. E. 1891. Andrew Jackson Grayson. Zoe 2(1):34-68.
"In the early days of California history it (the condor) was more frequently met with than now, being of a cautious and shy disposition the rapid settlement of the country has partially driven it off to more secluded localities. I remember the time when this vulture was much disliked by the hunter because of its ravages upon any large game he may have killed and left exposed for only a short length of time. So powerful is its sight that it will discover a dead deer from an incredible distance while soaring in the air. A case of this kind happened with myself while living in the mountains of Marin County, California, in the year 1847. At that time my main dependence for meat wherewith to feed my little family was my rifle. The hills and mountains there abounded in deer and other game and it was not difficult to kill a deer any day, but to kill a fat one could only be done by accident or the acuteness of a skillful hunter in making such a selection. A four-point buck in the month of July could always be depended upon as savory venison with ribs and haunch covered with tallow. One fine morning I shot a large and exceedingly fat buck of four points, on the hills above my little cabin. Taking a survey of the sky in every direction I could not discover a single vulture, and, as my cabin was but a short distance from the spot, I concluded not to cover my game as I could return with my horse to pack it home before the vultures would be likely to trouble it. But for this lack of caution I was doomed, as in many other events in my life, to disappointment. I was gone about two hours, when, on returning, I found my game surrounded and covered by a flock of at least a dozen vultures, and others still coming. Some so far up in the heavens as to appear like a small black speck upon the clear blue sky. So busy were they, tearing and devouring the deer and fighting among themselves that I approached quite near before they saw me, when all arose, some flying a short distance and perching upon the rocks and sides of the hill, while others less gorged were sailing around taking a bird's-eye view of the half consumed deer and my chagrin."
COMMENT: This July 1847 record of more than a dozen condors together in Marin County, California, indicates a good-sized local population north of San Francisco. At that time of year, they could have been non-breeders ranging north. However, the location is almost 100 miles from the closest known condor nesting area, and is geographically cut off from much of the foraging area to the south by the vast expanse of San Francisco Bay.

17. Cassin, J. 1858. United States exploring expedition during the years 1838-1842 under the command of Charles Wilkes, U. S. N. Vol. VIII. Mammalogy and ornithology. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co.
Condors seen on the plains of the Willamette River, Oregon, but "much more numerous in California."
COMMENT: Cassin was not on the Oregon part of the Wilkes Expedition; this is almost certainly a repeat of Peale's observations [Reference 61].

18. Clarke, C. 1971. Possible condor sighting in Mendocino County, California.
In a March 1971 letter to Sanford Wilbur, Miss Cecile Clarke of the Clarke Memorial Museum (Eureka, California) wrote: "In the fall of 1912, I saw one (California condor) flying south in Kibesillah (Fort Bragg area, Mendocino County, California). I did not know the bird, but I was up on eagles, hawks, turkey vultures, etc.. (and so) I decided to find out. I asked everyone I knew and finally a very old man told me that he had seen it. He said it was the same old condor that goes north in the spring and south in the fall."
COMMENT: Miss Clarke definitely knew condors at a later date, as her museum housed two condors killed in Humboldt County around 1890 (see Reference 69), and had a general familiarity with other soaring birds. The observation was in a very isolated area less than 75 miles from the Humboldt County collection locations.

19. Clyman, J. 1926. James Clyman, his diaries and reminiscences. California Historical Society Quarterly 6(2):136-187.
Journal entry for 12 January 1845 (but not necessarily referring to that date), condor recorded in "Oregon Territory."
COMMENT: I need to check this. I think it was just a general reference, not Clyman's own observation.
Page 182: Napper Creek, California, August 16, 1845. We had rare sport shooting deer Bringing in nine skins in the Evening the most of the meat being left on the ground for the wolves and vultures and of the latter the country seems to be remarkably well stocked. Beside the raven and Turkey Buzzard of the states you see here the royal vulture in greate abundance frequently measuring Fourteen feet from the extremity of one wing to the extremity of the other.
Page 183: September 8, 1845. Killed five deer one large grizzeled bear one Royal vulture this is the largest fowl I have yet seen measuring when full grown full 14 feet from the extremity of one wing to the extremity of the other Like all the vulture tribe this fowl feeds on dead carcases but like the bald Eagle prefers his meat fresh and unputrefied they seem [to] hover over the mountains in greate numbers and are never at least fault for their prey but move directly and rapidly to the carcase cutting the wind with their wings and creating a Buzzing sound which may [be] heard at a miles distance and making one or two curves they immediately alight and commense glutting.
COMMENT: These observations in Napa County, California, in August and September 1845 were made not far from the July 1847 Marin County sightings of Grayson [Reference 16]. Even allowing for a little exaggeration in the description of condors "in greate abundance," they lend more credibility to a fairly large local population. As I noted in Reference 16, at that time of year, those condors could have been non-breeders ranging north. However, the location is almost 100 miles from the closest known condor nesting area, and is geographically cut off from much of the foraging area to the south by the vast expanse of San Francisco Bay.

20. Cooper, J. G., and G. Suckley. 1860. Report upon the birds collected on the Survey: Land birds. In Explorations for a Route for the Pacific Railroad Near the Forty-seventh and Forty-ninth Parallels, explored by I. I. Stevens. Pacific Railroad Surveys.
Page 141: "The Californian vulture visits the Columbia river in fall, when the shores are lined with great numbers of dead salmon, on which this and other vultures, besides crows, ravens, and many quadupeds, feed for a couple months. While the expedition was traveling near the upper Columbia, in the fall of 1853, I saw none of this species, though turkey buzzards were common, and I concluded that these did not extend their wanderings eastward of the Cascade mountains. On our return to Vancouver, November 18, none were seen there, and the rainy season had set in. I supposed they had retired south. In January, 1854, I saw, during a very cold period, a bird which I took for this, from its great size, peculiar flight, and long bare neck which it stretched out as it sat on a high dead tree During several voyages on the Columbia, in summer and spring, as well as a long residence near its mouth, I never again saw this bird, and must consider it only a visitor at certain seasons, and not a resident even during summer. Townsend supposed he saw its nest along the Columbia, but did not examine them, and was probably mistaken. I neither saw nor heard of its occurrence at Puget Sound.-C(ooper)"
"The Californian vulture, according to Nuttall (see Manual, 2nd. Ed.) is a summer resident of Oregon; Townsend and Audubon also speak of its occurrence there. It was my misfortune to be absent from the main salmon fisheries at the annual period, when this bird is said to be abundant, and I was therefore unable to obtain, or even see, a single individual--S(uckley)."
COMMENT: Dates and areas traveled are not always easy to pick out of the many reports of the Railroad Surveys. Cooper and Suckley were on the Columbia River at Fort Vancouver 24 July 1853. They worked north from Vancouver, crossed the Cascades south of Mt. St. Helens 5 August 1853, continued around Mt. Adams, and down into the Columbia Basin. They visited areas around Yakima, Fort Colville, and Spokane, before returning south to Walla Walla, Washington, then back down the Columbia River to Fort Vancouver in November 1853. Apparently they were around Fort Vancouver into December 1853.
The failure to see condors (except for Cooper's one probable bird near Fort Vancouver in January) may be attributed to them spending most of their time east of the Cascades. They were in eastern Washington through August, September, and October - the time period when one might expect to find larger congregations of non-breeding condors - yet saw no sign of them. Douglas [References 22 and 23] and Townsend [References 73 and 74] also spent considerable time east of the Cascades, and failed to see any condors, suggesting to me that the few incidental records of condors in the intermountain area represented occasional birds wandering from the west.
All of Cooper's and Suckley's comments on distribution are from other sources, most of them second-hand. I don't think any of them should be considered authoritative.

21. Coues, E. (editor) 1897. The manuscript journals of Alexander Henry and of David Thompson, 1799-1814. New York: Francis P. Harper
Page 808, 19 January 1814, on the Columbia River near present-day Cascade Locks, Oregon: "some extraordinarily large vultures [Pseudogryphus californianus added by editor] were hovering over camp."
Page 817, 25 January 1814, on the Willamette River, Oregon, probably near the mouth of Pudding River: "I sent for the eight deer killed yesterday. The men brought in seven of them, one having been devoured by the vultures [Pseudogryphus californianus added by editor]. These birds are uncommonly large and very troublesome to my hunters by destroying the meat, which, though well covered with pine branches, they contrive to uncover and devour."
COMMENT: Mid-winter records of condors in northern Oregon; no numbers are given, but both entries sound like they were talking about more than one or two condors.

22. Douglas, D. 1829. Observations on the Vultur californianus of Shaw. Zoological Journal 4(1):328-330.
Most of this article is misinformation supplied to David Douglas (a noted and respected naturalist) by a (obviously waggish) voyageur. Perhaps the most famous, and preposterous, of the stories involved condor nesting: "They build their nests in the most secret and impenetrable parts of the pine forests, invariably selecting the loftiest trees that overhang precipices on the deepest and least accessible parts of the mountain vallies. The nest is large, composed of strong thorny twigs and grass, in every way similar to that of the eagle tribe, but more slovenly constructed... Eggs two, nearly spherical, about the size of those of a goose, jet black..." Similarly, and likely from the same source: "Preceding hurricanes or thunder-storms they are seen most numerous and fly the highest." This one doesn't even pass a "weather test," since hurricanes are unknown in Oregon, and thunderstorms are uncommon in the areas known to have supported condors.
Not all of Douglas' information is incorrect, and nowadays it is relatively easy to separate fact from fiction. He saw condors himself [Reference 23]; in fact, collected two specimens. His paper therefore starts out with meticulous data on weights, measurements, and plumage characteristics of the two birds he examined. He saw condors flying and feeding, and gave reasonable descriptions of these activities. He reported seeing condors as far north as the 49th Parallel (the border between Washington and Canada) "in the summer and autumn months," but noted that they were most common along the lower Columbia River "between the Grand Rapids and the sea."

COMMENT: Douglas' itinerary [condensed from: Hall, F. W. (1933). "Studies of the history of ornithology in the State of Washington. Part III, David Douglas." Murrelet 15(1): 3-19] is helpful in determining where and when he did and didn't see condors.
First trip 1825-1826:
--7 April 1825, Douglas and John Scouler arrived at the mouth of the Columbia River
--April to 1 June 1825 Douglas and Scouler spent their time on and near the Columbia River from Fort Vancouver to the coast
--1 June 1825 to 20 March 1826, Douglas headquartered at Fort Vancouver; he spent considerable time there, and also made excursions along the Columbia River from Celilo to the mouth; at Astoria; around Willapa Bay and Gray's Harbor; up the Chehalis River; and 60 miles up the Willamette River.
--20 March 1826 Douglas went up the Columbia River to Fort Okanagan, Spokane (April 1826), Kettle Falls (April 1826); returned down the Columbia to Walla Walla; three excursions to the Blue Mountains; up the Snake River (June 1826); return to Spokane, Kettle Falls, and Okanagan (July-August 1826); then back down the Columbia to Fort Vancouver 30 August 1826.
--Fall 1826 up the Willamette Valley and over into the Umpqua
--Winter 1826-1827 around Fort Vancouver
--20 March 1827 began the trip east up the Columbia River; eventually crossed the Rockies, up to Hudson Bay, and home to England October 1827.

Second trip 1830-
--May 1830 arrived back at Fort Vancouver, by ship
--May to December 1830 mainly in the interior Columbia Basin area
--22 December 1830 to October 1832, in California and the Hawaiian Islands
--October 1832 to March 1833, around Fort Vancouver, with a trip to Puget Sound in March 1833
--20 March 1833 to late June 1833, British Columbia
--June 1833 to November 1833, around Fort Vancouver
--November 1833 left the Northwest for Hawaii

As detailed in Reference 23, all Douglas' specific condor sightings during 1825 and 1826 were from west of the Cascades. He spent late March through the end of August 1826 east of the mountains, and he traveled east up the Columbia River on his way home in March and April 1827.He did not leave any specific records of condors on those inland journeys, but his 1829 comment (this reference) that he had seen condors north to the 49th Parallel would have had to refer to his time east of the Cascades. He was in the Columbia Basin again May to December 1830, and he reached western British Columbia and northwest Washington March to June 1833, but his journals for those periods were lost and no record exists of what he saw.

23. Douglas, D. 1914. Journal kept by David Douglas during his travels in North America 1823-1827. London: William Wesley & Son.
- January-February 1826, Ft. Vancouver, Clark Co., Washington: When opportunity favored I collected woods, and gathered Musci &c., and from this time to March 20th I formed a tolerable collection of preserved animals and birds, but this desirable object was frequently interrupted by heavy rains. Among the birds and animals deserve to be mentioned Tetrao Sabine, T. Richardsonii, Sarcoramphus californica, Corvus Stelleri, an endless variety of Anas, several species of Canis, Cervus, Mus, and Myozus.
- January-February 1826 Ft. Vancouver, Clark County, Washington - summarizing his late winter bird observations and collections [see page 62, above]: On the Columbia there is a species of Buzzard, the largest of all birds here, the Swan excepted. I killed only one of this very interesting bird, with buckshot, one of which passed through the head, which rendered it unfit for preserving; I regret it exceedingly, for I am confident it is not yet described. I have fired at them with every size of small shot at respectable distances without effect; seldom more than one or two are together. When they find a dead carcase or any putrid animal matter, so gluttonous are they that they will eat until they can hardly walk and have been killed with a stick. They are of the same colour as the common small buzzard found in Canada, one of which was sent home last October. Beak and legs bright yellow. The feathers of the wing are highly prized by the Canadian voyageurs for making tobacco pipe-stems. I am shortly to try to take them in a baited steel-trap.
The variety of species of quadrupeds is not I think so great as in many other parts of America. The Elk (which the hunters say agrees with the Biche on the other side) is plentiful in all the woody parts of the country; is particularly abundant near the coast. Two species of Deer, one called by the hunters le Chevreuil or Jumping Deer, is found in most parts of the Columbia; great numbers are killed on the Multnomah or Willamette River, one of its southern branches The other, the Black-tailed Deer, is not so abundant as the former.
- 3 October 1826, upper Willamette Valley, probably present-day Linn County, Oregon: The Large Buzzard, so common on the shores of the Columbia, is also plentiful here; saw nine in one flock

- 10 or 11 October 1826, watershed between the Willamette and Umpqua rivers, Oregon (south of present day Eugene, Oregon): This morning we passed a hill of similar elevation and appearance to that passed yesterday. Several species of Clethra were gathered - one in particular, C. grandis [sic], was very fine - and many birds of Sarcoramphus californica and Ortyx californica, and two other species of great beauty were collected. This part of the time was rainy, ill-adapted for hunting. The last two days' march we descended the banks of Red Deer River, which empties itself into the River Arguilar or Umpqua, forty-three miles from the sea.
- February 1827, at Ft. Vancouver, Clark County, Washington, no specific date given: Killed a very large vulture, sex unknown [see Reference 26]. Obtained the following information concerning this curious bird from Etienne Lucien, one of the hunters who has had ample opportunity of observing them. They build their nests in the thickest part of the forest, invariably choosing the most secret and impenetrable situations and build on a pine-tree a nest of dead sticks and grass; have only two young at a time; egg very large (fully larger than a goose-egg), nearly a perfect circle and of a uniform jet black. The period of incubation is not exactly known; most likely the same as the eagle. They have young in pairs. During the summer are seen in great numbers on the woody part of the Columbia, from the ocean to the mountains of Lewis and Clarke's River, four hundred miles in the interior. In winter they are less abundant: I think they migrate to the south, as great numbers were seen by myself on the Umpqua river, and south of it by Mr. McLeod, whom I accompanied. Feeds on all putrid animal matter and are so ravenous that they will eat until they are unable to fly. Are very shy; can rarely get near enough to kill them with buck-shot; readily taken with a steel trap. Their flight is swift but steady, to appearance seldom moving the wings; keep floating along with the points of the wings curved upwards. Of a blackish-brown with a little white under the wing; head of a deep orange colour; beak of a sulphur-yellow; neck, a yellowish-brown varying in tinge like the common turkey-cock. I have never heard them call except when fighting about food, whey they jump trailing their wings on the ground, crying "Crup Cra-a," something like a common crow.
COMMENT: See my notes on Reference 22 for details of Douglas' travels while in the Pacific Northwest. I think it is noteworthy that: (1) he recorded no condors during extensive travels east of the Cascade Mountains; (2) he recorded condors on the Columbia River only in winter, and in the Willamette-Umpqua area in October; and (3) at both times of year, he used descriptive terms like "so common," "plentiful," and "many," suggesting more than occasional sightings of a bird or two. One of his October observations was on nine in one group.

24A. Fannin, J. 1891. Check-list of British Columbia birds. Victoria, B. C.: Richard Wolfenden.
"In September, 1880, I saw two of these birds at Burrard Inlet. It is more than probable they are accidental visitants here. Lord says: "Mouth of Eraser River. Seldom visits the interior."

24. Fannin, J. 1897. The California Vulture in Alberta. Auk 14(1):89.
On the 10th of September last (1896) I saw between Calgary and the Rocky Mountains two fine speclmens of the California Vulture, Pseudogryphus californianus. I was not aware that this bird was found east of the Rocky Mountains, or so far north as the point above mentioned.
COMMENT: This record has been disputed by just about everybody. In a 6 March 1931 letter to W. L. Chambers, Alan Brooks claimed that Fannin told him that the Alberta, Canada, condor sighting was actually of immature golden eagles [letter in Chambers collection, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, California].

25. Finley, E. L (editor). 1937. History of Sonoma County, California: Its People and Its Resources. Santa Rosa, California: The Press Democrat Publishing Company.
Page 406. "Grizzly Bear Encounter: Shortly after William Benitz acquired the Fort Ross property he took his rifle and set up the mountain-side to try to kill one of several 'vultures or California condors' perched on the dead limb of a pine tree, in order to obtain the feathers, which he knew would be highly prized by his Indian retainers. Keeping under cover of trees and shrubbery, he managed to get fairly close to the huge birds and was seeking a position from which he might get an unobstructed view when he was startled by the breaking of a twig close at hand. What happened is best described in his own language."
'One look,' asserted Benitz, 'was enough to set every hair of my head on end! Not much over the length of my gun from me stood, erect on his hind feet, a grizzly bear of monster size - at the time he seemed to me ten feet tall! By impulse I wheeled, brought my gun to a level, and without any attempt at taking aim, fired. The bear pitched forward upon me and we fell together - my gun flying out of my hands, and some distance away. I was frightened beyond the power of language to express. The bear and I had fallen together, but I had given myself a rolling lurch down the mountain-side, which for a moment took me out of the reach of his dreaded jaws. This advantage was not to be lost; and I kept going over and over without any regard to elegance of posture, until I had got at least 200 yards from where I fell; and when I stopped rolling it was a problem to me which I was most, dead or alive.
'I ventured upon my feet and looked cautiously around, but could see no grizzly. To borrow a miner's expression, "I began prospecting around." I had an earnest desire to get hold of my gun, but a dislike to the neighborhood in which we had parted company. With the utmost caution I worked my way up to a position overlooking the spot where I and the grizzly together fell. To my surprise, and gratification as well, there lay the bear stretched at full length, and dead. My random shot had proved what seldom occurs to grizzly bears, a dead shot. That was the biggest scare of my life.'"
COMMENT: This may be the incident alluded to in Reference 28. "Shortly after" Benitz acquired the Fort Ross property would be ca 1845-1846. No condor was killed in this incident, but if Benitz was indeed helping local Native Americans acquire feathers, he may have shot one or more about this time.

26. Finley, W. L. 1908. Life History of the California Condor. Part II, Historical Data and Range of the Condor. Condor 10(1):5-10.
"Dr. J. K. Townsend informed Audubon that 'The California vulture inhabits
the region of the Columbia River to a distance of five hundred miles from its mouth and is most abundant in spring, at which season it feeds on the dead salmon that are thrown upon the shores in great numbers. It is also met with near the Indian villages, being attracted by the offal of the fish thrown around their habitations.' He also stated: 'The California vultures cannot be called, however, a plentiful species, as even in the situations mentioned, it is rare to see more than two or three at a time, and these so shy as not to allow an approach to within a hundred yards, unless by stratagem. Although I have frequently seen this bird, I have never heard it utter a sound. The eggs I have never seen, nor have I had any account of them, that I could depend upon. I have never heard of their attacking living animals. Their food while on the Columbia is fish almost exclusively, as this food is always found in great abundance near the falls and rapids-they also feed on dead animals. At Fort Vancouver I saw two feeding on the carcass of a pig.' Altho Townsend's statement is convincing, some people have doubted the authenticity of this record, since no one has since recorded the California condor in the region of the Columbia River. Dr. Newberry, Dr. Suckley, and Dr. Cooper could find no other records of the bird in Oregon.
"The most striking record on the present range of the California condor is one from Douglas County in southern Oregon. This seems very unusual, as we can find nothing else in recent years of the bird living between the San Francisco region and this place, altho it is a stretch of several hundred miles.
"The Oregon records were given by Mr. George Peck and his son Mr. Henry Peck, who are both reliable ornithologists, and who were both well acquainted with the bird in southern California. Mr. Henry Peck informs me that on or about July 4, 1903, he and his father saw two California condors at Drain, Douglass County, Oregon. They were quite high in the air and were sailing about over the mountains. The elder Mr. Peck saw them several times after that. He states the birds were instantly recognized by both of them. Again in March, 1904, Mr. Henry Peck writes, 'I saw four condors which were very close to me, almost within gun shot. I recognized them first by their size, and second by the white feathers under their wings. The birds were all flying very low, as there was a high wind blowing.' Mr. Peck also gives the record of a condor that was killed on the coast of southern Oregon a number of years ago.
"These records seem to show that if the California condor was formerly found in the region of the Columbia river, the numbers have decreased and the last of these northern birds seem to have taken refuge in the rough mountain regions of southern Oregon, while the range of the condor in California has contracted to regions from Monterey County south thru the mountains of the Coast Range and the extension of the San Bernardino Range into Lower California."
COMMENT: As noted in my comments on Reference 3, Finley was right to question some of Townsend's comments to Audubon. He had not seen the specific records of Douglas, Peale, Townsend and others, so was not aware that there were a number of records from the Columbia River and other parts of northwest Oregon.
Finley's dates for the Douglas County sightings are somewhat different than those given first-hand by George Peck [Reference 61].

27. Fleming, J. H. 1924. The California Condor in Washington: Another Version of an Old Record. Condor 26(3):111-112.
"When David Douglas, the great botanical collector, published (Zool. Journal, IV, Jan., 1829, p. 328), his 'Observations on Vultur Californianus of Shaw,' he referred to the range of this bird north of California as follows: 'I have met with them as far to the north as 49º N. latitude, in the summer and autumn months, but nowhere so abundant as in the Columbia Valley between the Grand Rapids and the sea.' Audubon (Ornith. Biog., v, 1829, pp. 241-243) reprinted the paper, it was quoted both in the Fauna Boreali-Americana of Swainson and Richardson (vol. II, Birds, 1831, p. 1), and by Jameson in his edition of Wilson (American Ornithology [Constable's Miscellany] iv, 1831, pp. 259-261. It has been shown by Mathews and Iredale [Austral Avian Record, v, 1923, pp. 67-69 that this volume was published before volume II of the Fauna Boreali-Americana.) This record by Douglas has remained the chief authority for 'formerly north to Columbia River' of our Check-List.
"In the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist of 1860, there is a very good life of Douglas by his friend George Barnston, of the Hudson's Bay Company, in which (page 208), there is an interesting reference to Douglas and a California Condor as follows :
'The Spring of 1827 was severe, and much snow had fallen. The consequence was that many horses died at Fort Vancouver, and we were visited by the various species of beasts and birds of prey that abound in that country. Most conspicuous among these were the California vulture. This magnate of the air was ever hovering around, wheeling in successive circles for a time, then changing the wing as if wishing to describe the figure 8; the ends of the pinions, when near enough to be seen, having a bend waving upwards, all his movements, whether soaring or floating, ascending or descending, were lines of beauty. In flight he is the most majestic bird I have seen. One morning a large specimen was brought into our square, and we had all a hearty laugh at the eagerness with which the Botanist pounced upon it. In a very short time he had it almost in his embraces fathoming its stretch of wings, which not being able to compass, a measure was brought, and he found it full nine feet from tip to tip. This satisfied him, and the bird was carefully transferred to his studio for the purpose of being stuffed. In all that pertained to nature or science he was a perfect enthusiast. It has been frequently a matter of surprise how quickly these birds collect when a large animal dies. None may be seen in any direction, but in a few minutes after a horse or other large animal gives up the ghost they may be descried like specks in the aether, nearing by circles to their prey, when as yet one would not suppose the effluvia from the carcase had reached above a hundred yards. This renders it probable that their sight as well as sense of smelling is very acute, but that the latter can guide them entirely without aid from the other, I am certain, as I have started them from carrion within the edge of the forest under bushes which must have precluded the possibility of their seeing the carcase before they alighted on it.'
"Douglas sent a pair of California Condors to London. He gives the latitude
and longitude of Fort Vancouver as the locality where they were taken. These were placed in the museum of the Zoological Society where they presumably remained till the museum was broken up in 1855. They are not in the British Museum, and it would be interesting to know if they still exist."
COMMENT: Douglas' mention of this event is given in Reference 23.

28. Fort Ross Interpretive Association. 2001. Fort Ross. Fort Ross, California.
"Like most areas of our world, Fort Ross has lost bird species. The California condor lived here well into the last century. Native Americans valued its feathers, and William Benitz once reported having shot one."
COMMENT: I haven't been able to find the original source of this information, but it may be a misinterpreted allusion to Reference 25. William Benitz was caretaker at Fort Ross for John Sutter in 1843; leased land from Sutter in 1845; stayed at Fort Ross until 1873; then moved to Oakland and later Argentina.

29. Frazier, Henry H. 1971. Possible condors in Siskiyou County, California.
Henry H. Frazier, of Morro Bay, California, on 20 February 1971 told Sanford R. Wilbur about a possible northern California sighting of condors. In the spring of 1925, on the divide west of Copco Dam in Siskiyou County, Frazier saw six birds that he thought were adult California condors. There was snow on the ground, and the six birds were feeding on a dead cow. Mr. Frazier gave a good description of condors.
COMMENT: This was 20 years later than the last generally accepted record for condors in the Pacific Northwest, but this was a very isolated area and only about 100 air miles from some late 1800s condor records.

30. Gabrielson, I. N., and S. G. Jewett. 1940. Birds of the Pacific Northwest. Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University.
Page 180, California Condor: "Lewis and Clark (1814) wrote that the California Condor was 'not rare' near the mouth of the Columbia, November 30, 1805, and January 2, 1806; that it was abundant at Deer Island, March 28, 1806; and that it was seen again in Oregon, April 4, 1806. Douglas (1828) shot a male and female 'in latitude 45.30.15., longitude 122.3.12.,' which is near Multnomah Falls. Townsend (1839) listed it for the territory. Newberry (1857) reported it as 'rare and not seen by us.' Suckley did not see it, although on a constant lookout for it; but Cooper reported that in January 1854 he saw a bird that he was certain was of this species (Cooper and Suckley 1860). He made a number of trips up and down the Columbia in the 50s but found only the one bird. Cooper stated:
'The Californian Vulture visits the Columbia river in fall, when its shores are lined with great numbers of dead salmon, on which this and other vultures, besides crows, ravens, and many quadrupeds, feast for a couple months.'
"Barnston (1860) gave a detailed account of the capture of a California Vulture at Fort Vancouver in the spring of 1827 and told of the great joy with which Douglas received it. This interesting bit of early history was later quoted by Fleming (1924).
"All the numerous subsequent references to the California Vulture as an Oregon species rest on the observations of those quoted above, except the account of Finley (1908), who referred to two at Drain about July 4, 1903, and four in March 1904. These birds were observed by George and Henry Peck, both familiar with the species in California and both good ornithologists, who further stated that one was killed on the coast of southern Oregon. It is impossible that these observers, all keen and experienced naturalists, could have been mistaken, but the condor, if ever common in this State, seems to have become rare or almost completely extinct between Douglas' visit and the time of the Pacific Railway Surveys. Jewett has talked to several well-informed woodsmen who described accurately to him condors seen in southern Oregon at about the time of the Peck observation, and it seems highly probable that two or more of these big birds strayed into southern Oregon, perhaps to remain for some time."
COMMENT: This is a compilation of reports, which I have commented on at their original sources. The one new piece of relevant information is that "Jewett has talked to several well-informed woodsmen who described accurately to him condors seen in southern Oregon at about the time of the Peck observation."

31. Gifford, E. W., and G. H. Block. 1930. California Indian nights entertainments. Glendale, California: Arthur H. Clark Co.
The Wiyot Indians of Humboldt County, California, identified Condor in their myth of The Flood: he was a good influence, who was the father of all men created after The Flood.
COMMENT: Another indication that the California condor was well-known to Native Americans in northwestern California.

32. Goddard, P. E. 1929. The Bear River dialect of Athapascan. Univ. Calif. Publ. Am. Archeol. Ethnol. 24(5):291-324.
Humboldt County Native Americans may have had a name for the condor - Yondiyauw = eats whale.
COMMENT: Another indication that the California condor was known to Native Americans in northwestern California.

33. Grinnell, J., J. Dixon and J. M. Linsdale. 1930. Vertebrate natural history of a section of northern California through Lassen Peak. Berkeley: University of California Press.
No California condors were seen during their surveys; they report the earlier records of C. H. Townsend [Reference 73] and Newberry [Reference 59].

34. Grinnell, J., and M. W. Wythe. 1927. Directory of the Bird-life of the San Francisco Bay Region. Pacific Coast Avifauna Number 18. Berkeley, California: Cooper Ornithological Club.
"[California condor] does not occur anywhere in the Bay region at the present time. The latest record of occurrence is for a point in southern San Mateo County, some miles west of Stanford University, known as 'Basaltic Columns.' Here one bird was seen the latter part of January, 1904 (see W. K. Fisher, Condor, vi, 1904, p.50). There are older records for San Rafael, Marin County, for Pescadero and Redwood City, San Mateo County, and for Los Gatos and San Jose, Santa Clara County, all previous to 1880. The species was 'common' in parts of San Mateo County in 1865 (C. Littlejohn, MS).
COMMENT: No reference is given for the Marin County record. It may refer to the 1847 observations of Grayson [Reference 16], the only pre-1880 record I have found for Marin County.

35. Gurney, J. H. 1894. Catalogue of the birds of prey with the number of specimens in Norwich Museum. London. 56pp.
The Museum had four condor skins, one skeleton, and one egg. "Lord Walsingham has shot vultures a good bit north of Mendocino (northern California), probably the rare Pseudogryphus (Gymnogyps) californianus."
COMMENT: None of the noted specimens came from the Pacific Northwest. The statement about Lord Walsingham is tantalizing, in that he traveled extensively in northern California and Oregon in 1871-1872 [Reference 78]. However, I have been unable to find any records of birds he might have seen or shot.

36. Hansel-Kuehn, V. J. 2003. The Dalles Roadcut (Fivemile Rapids) Avifauna: Evidence for a cultural origin. Master of Arts thesis, Washington State University (Pullman, Washington).
"The Dalles Roadcut (35-WS-8/WS-4), or Fivemile Rapids as it is also known, is an archaeological site on the Columbia River, Oregon, which represents ten thousand years of continuous occupation. Renowned for its vast early Holocene salmonid deposit, which previous investigations have shown to be culltural, the Roadcut also contained over 9,000 bird remains including scavenger and raptor species. Questions concerning the origins of the Roadcut faunal remains have often revolved around the presence of these species of birds, necessitating a reinvestigation of the avifaunal collection. This faunal analysis has identified two distinct patterns of butchery present on 331 of the bird remains. The gulls and cormorants were butchered for consumption while the Bald Eagles and California Condors show evidence of feather harvesting. The Bald Eagles alone show signs of talon removal. Bird bone artifact manufacturing debris and 691 limb bone cylinders were found as well. Preserved medullary bone was identified in 647 specimens placing occupation of the site during the spring and early summer months. The Dalles Roadcut avifauna date between 11,000 and 8,000 years BP."
COMMENT: Loye Miller [Reference 57] had written that prehistoric California condor remains were "surprisingly abundant" at Five Mile Rapids, but did not speculate on why so many condor bones were present. This study appears to show that Native Americans were purposely killing the condors ("feather harvesting") along the Columbia River 10,000 years ago. Findings in the Hansel-Kuehn paper that are particularly significant: (1) Miller estimated that a minimum of 63 condors were represented by the bones recovered, but the present researcher reduces that minimum to only 22 condors. This is because Miller treated each "packet" of recovered bones separately, not considering that the bones of an individual condor might have ended up in several packets; Hansel-Kuehn treated all recovered bones as a single sample. (2) None of the condor bones examined was from an immature bird. (3) The suggestion of feather removal from condor bones showed on 10 of 49 samples. (4) There was one tube fragment and four bone cylinders from condor materials.

37. Hansen, H. J., and J. T. Miller. 1962. Wild oats in Eden: Sonoma County in the 19th Century. Santa Rosa, California: privately published.
Page 20 has a photo of a full condor skin, labeled "Feather mantle, perhaps the only California Indian mantle in existence." The picture was supplied by the Museum of Athropology and Ethnography, Moscow, and is displayed with drawings made by I. G. Vosnesenskii at Fort Ross 1841.

38. Harrington, J. P. Karuk Indian myths. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 107.
Pages 16-19. Two Brothers Go Target Shooting (paraphrased):
Two brothers went target shooting. Others came and ridiculed them. "What can such poor fellows have come down here for? No one shoots here unless they have a woodpecker scalp headband." The boys went back home. The older one was so ashamed that he cried for ten nights. But he had heard that anyone could get rich if they went bathing in the Lake of the Place where the Person Eats Himself. He decided that they should go off and find that place. They walked a long way, with nothing to eat but acorns. Finally, they saw the lake and went down to it. The water was very black, and the younger brother was afraid of it. But the older one said "I am not going to be afraid of
it." Then he said: "Come on, you must stay here. You must stay here five nights. Though it be that you do not see me any more, you must stay here. I'll come back."
The older brother jumped into the lake. When he jumped in, the water rose and boiled up. After he disappeared, the younger brother waited for five dawns, then went to the lake looking for his brother. The lake level went down, and he found his brother lying among the driftwood, as if he was dead. But he was alive, and the younger brother fed him acorn soup, and he revived. They stayed at the lake all day and night, then decided to go home.
As they began their journey home, they saw a white deer. They had blowguns with them, and they shot the deer. Soon they saw a black deer, which they shot. Later, they killed a red deer, and then a gray deer. After that, they began to kill birds of all kinds western pileated woodpecker, California woodpecker, California condor, southern bald eagle, etc. Soon their load was so heavy they couldn't walk.
When they reached home they were packing all kinds of birds on their backs. When the people saw them coming, behold they were packing all kinds of woodpecker scalps and all kinds of skins. The people were surprised to see them, because they didn't think the older one would return from the lake. Then the next day a lot of people came there to challenge the boys to gamble at Indian cards with them. They would not believe that
they had come back from a long way. Then they [the youths] said: "All right." Then they started in to gamble, and soon they had one a lot of property. They began to gamble every day, being constantly challenged by new players. They soon had a house full of all the property they had won, and then a second house was full of the belongings they had won.
The next year they went down to target shoot. Their headbands were solid woodpecker scarlet. The others there wouldn't speak to them because they felt ashamed of themselves for having told the boys: "You fellows will not shoot here without woodpecker scalp headbands on."
Said the narrator: "The place where this occurred, Aftaram, was a small rancheria. Two houses only were standing when I saw it, and one sweathouse. And they say that the people there are all extinct. They all died off, they were all rich people subsequent to these youths. Those two were old when they died. My deceased mother had seen two condor plumes from that time, that had been the two youths' condor plumes."
COMMENT: The Karuk/Karok lived in western Siskiyou County, California, in the Klamath River area. This is another story indicating that the condor was well-known to them.

39. Harris, H. 1941. The annals of Gymnogyps to 1900. Condor 43(1):3-55.
Most of the information on the Pacific Northwest that appears in "the annals" is abstracted under the original references. One interesting note from Harris relating to the occurrence of condors in the Columbia River area: "As a further token of its [condors] scarcity at that time, [J. K.] Townsend had met on the river a Reverend Samuel Parker, a man of some ornithological arts with whom he had discussed at length the birds of the region, who during an extended stay failed to see the vulture."

Another note relative to northern California specimens occurs on page 19: "When in Europe in 1933 Mr. A. J. van Rossem was kind enough to look up some Gymogyps matters then greatly perplexing the present writer, and wrote from Paris on July 25, 1933: 'The only condor relics to date (there is nothing at Rouen) are three birds here at the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle. All three are mounted and in good condition. Two adults are from the Bonaparte collection marked simply "Californie, achete par 1'Etate en 1858". The third is more interesting: it is in a plumage new to me, adult as to body and wings, but the head and neck are covered with a thin, buff-colored down, through which the yellowish skin shows plainly. It is marked as "Acquis par exchange du Musee
St. Petersbourg en 1856." There is no indication as to the source of the Bonaparte pair of adults, but the St. Petersburg specimen possibly was taken by Pallas. I infer this by the fact that there are several other birds here which were received in exchange the same year from the same source. They are all by Pallas from "Nord-Oest Cote d'Amerique."' A little later from Berlin Mr. van Rossem wrote: 'Stresemann thinks it very probable that the St. Petersburg specimen was taken by Bischoff's party.' The compiler has thus far been unable to trace any reference in the literature to an opportunity offered either of these collectors to secure Gymnogyps in the field. It may be pointed out in this connection that Rezanov, with his personal physician Langsdorff (a naturalist), visited California in 1806, and that Kotzebue, with Chamisso and Eschscholtz, made two voyages to this coast between 1816 and 1824. None of the narratives of these voyages mentions the large vulture, although other natural history notes are included."
COMMENT: Harris didn't know about the extensive collecting done by Vozenesenksi in northern California in 1840-1841 {References 1, 7, and 12], which might have been the source of the specimen exchanged between St. Petersburg and Paris. If any of the other Russians mentioned by Harris collected condors, I haven't found the records yet.

40. Howard, H. 1929. The avifauna of the Emeryville shellmound. University of California Publications in Zoology 32(2):301-394.
The shellmound deposits are considered Recent, but exact age unknown. There were 24 bone specimens from the California condor, apparently all from the same bird.
COMMENT: Dwight Simons [Reference 69] believed that this bird had been intentionally buried, perhaps as part of a ritual. The bones are believed to be about 2500 years old.

40A. Jewett, S. C. (1941). [Condors in Curry County, Oregon]. From Carl Koford's notes for 11 April 1941 (at the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, California): He talked to Stanley Jewett, who was convinced of the truth of condors in Curry County, Oregon, around 1900. "One rancher had told him that after they started poisoning for varmints the vultures had disappeared but the condors did not. Jewett asked him what he meant by 'vulture' and the man gave an excellent condor description." COMMENT: Koford may have transcribed his interview with Jewett incorrectly. In context, it sounds like the rancher may have told him that the "vultures" (condors) disappeared, but the "buzzards" (turkey vultures) didn't.

41. Jewett, S. C., W. P. Taylor, W. T. Shaw, and J. W. Aldrich. 1953. Birds of Washington State. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 737 pages.
Page 166, Summary of Washington records, all but one cited elsewhere in this review. "The last record of the species for the state appears to be that of Dr. C. Hart Merriam (letter of January 4, 1921). In the early morning of September 30, 1897, Dr. Merriam saw a condor on the ground in open country a few miles east of Coulee City, Washington."
COMMENT: This is clearly an unusual condor sighting, but Merriam certainly knew what California condors looked like.

42. Johnson, K. 1967. The Gold Rush letters of J. D. B. Stillman. Palo Alto, California: Lewis Osborne.
On 19 September 1849, on the Sacramento River a little north of the mouth of the Feather River, Stillman wrote: "Just before night, Mark shot a large bird in the top of a tree, which we thought was a wild turkey. It was directly over our heads, and fell into the water alongside the boat. It measured nine feet from tip to tip of wings, and its head and neck were bare of feathers and of a yellow color. It was of the vulture family, though we pronounced it a 'golden eagle,' for want of a better name."
COMMENT: J. D. B. Stillman arrived at San Francisco, California, in early August 1849. He was in San Francisco until September, then went by boat up the Sacramento River to Sacramento. He left Sacramento 15 September 1849, and boated up the river for several days. Stillman was in the Sacramento Valley through August 1850, but made no further comment on condors or other large birds.

43. Kermode, F. 1904. Catalogue of British Columbia birds. Victoria, B. C.
Citing J. Fannin: "In September, 1880, I saw two of these birds at Burrard Inlet. It is more than probable they are accidental visitants here." From J. K. Lord: "Mouth of Fraser River; seldom visits the Interior."
COMMENT: These are among the most often cited records of condors in Canada; no further information is available on which to judge their validity. As I have said elsewhere, there are enough of these kind of records that it seems unlikely that all are misidentifications.

44. Koford, C. B. 1953. The California condor. Research Report 4. National Audubon Society (New York, New York). 154 pages.
Pages 8-11, 139, summary of all known records north of San Francisco Bay [NOTE: all covered elsewhere in this bibliography]. Koford analyzed the northern records as follows:
"The localities for all the definite records of occurrence of condors in the Pacific Northwest are within 120 miles of the coast and mostly in the region of the lower Columbia River. Published reports that condors ranged inland to 500 miles from the mouth of the Columbia River and northward to 49 degreesare apparently based on hearsay. In view of the fact that condors have an extensive yearly range, yet tend to forage over the same area for many days in succession, the presence of two or three dozen condors in northwestern Oregon would be sufficient to account for all the records for that area.
"The occurrence and disappearance of condors along the Columbia River cannot be satisfactorily explained on the basis of the available facts. In order to explain this situation, one must know whether the birds were breeding, at what season they were most numerous, and upon what were they feeding. As there is no evidence of the breeding of condors north of San Francisco, the northern birds were probably immatures and non-breeding adults. Today the seasonal distribution of such birds is largely determined by the location of a constant suitable supply of food." [NOTE: Here, Koford reviewed the various confusing statements about the seasons of highest condor use, and also about the lack of good first-hand records of food use.] "Douglas did not mention that condors fed upon fish. Lewis, Clark, and Gass did not mention that condors fed on salmon although there was one mention of condors feeding on 'fish' on the sea coast. The idea that condors fed mainly on salmon along the shores of the river seems to be attributable to Townsend only.
"Judging from various mentions of salmon in the accounts of Lewis, Clark, and Douglas, the run of salmon commenced in April and declined during the summer. In mid-October great numbers of salmon lined the shores of the Columbia. In winter the Indians starved for lack of fish. The idea that condors were most common on the river in summer correlates well with the time of the salmon run. On this basis, one might suggest that the condors moved northward in summer to feed on the salmon and that they retired southward in winter. A seasonal northward and southward movement of about 100 miles occurs in the condor population today. Turkey vultures also tend to retire southward in winter. The only difficulty with this supposition is that all of the definite records of condors in the region of the Columbia River are included between the months of September and March, the opposite of the season of the salmon run. Possibly the population of condors was so scattered in summer, when there was an abundance of food for 100 miles or more along the river, that the explorers did not notice them.
"Douglasmentioned that the country had been extensively burned over by the Indians in the area where he saw nine condors. Perhaps this burning killed many animals and opened up the forests so that the carcasses were available to condors. Presumably burning would occur in late summer or fall at about the time that the condors arrived (judging by the written records of occurrence).
"Whatever the source of food near the Columbia River, condors evidently found it attractive. It may be that unfavorable food conditions in California forced the condors northward in search of food, and, finding it, they tended to stay in that area or to return in subsequent years. Then as the production of livestock and the slaughter of these animals for hides increased in California, the condors withdrew to the south and were not again forced northward. The other possibility is that the condors in the Pacific Northwest were the remnants of a formerly widespread population in that area, but there are no fossil or sub-fossil specimens to support this idea. As condors were apparently present in the Sacramento Valley and in Humboldt County in the middle 1800's, the southward withdrawal seems more probable."
COMMENT: Since Koford's time, more information has come to light on condors in the Pacific Northwest. There are more records to analyze than he had access to; there are prehistoric records he didn't know about; and there is a wealth of Native American information that he did not consider. Neither of his main hypotheses are compelling, today.

45. Kroeber, A. L. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California. Smithsonian Institute, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 78.
Chapter 3, Yurok religion: White Deerskin or Jump dances performed annually originally, last for a week or more, usually in September or October, characterized by displaying of wealth or most prized possessions; Page 116 - "The Deerskin dancers wear aprons of civet cat or a deer-hide blanket about the waist, masses of dentalium necklaces, and forehead bands of wolf fur that shade the eyes. For the head rises a stick on which are fastened two or four black and white eagle or condor feathers, so put together as to look like a single feather of enormous length, its quill covered with woodpecker scalp; or, three slender rods of sinew, scarlet with attached bits of scalp, rise from the stick."
Page 117 - "Shamans were chiefly women, and acquired their powers on mountain tops at night. Some people, too, were pitied by powerful lake spirits, and became physically strong and brave. Shamans in practicing wore a headband from which hung two long strings of feathers, and shoved condor feathers into their stomachs. There were those who only diagnosed while singing and dancing and others who also sucked out disease objects and blood."
Page 118 - Figure 11 shows a Wiyot shaman's outfit, including a drawing of a condor feather.

Chapter 9, Athabascans: Southern Group
The Sinkyone occupied the South Fork of the Eel River, and the adjacent sea coast from north of Shelter Cove to a point between Usal and Rockport.
Pages 149-150: The incipient Sinkyone shaman did not seek supernatural power, but began to dream of a dead relative or of the condor or other powerful spirits in the sky; or he would meet with a terrifying experience in a desolate place. One man, for instance, returned from hunting with bleeding nose and mouth after a delay that had caused his family to fear for his safety. Converging deer trails led him to a house in the rocks, he recounted, with deer hair and dung lying deep. When he faced two condors with red-striped breasts and spread wings, he fell unconscious and lay until night. He sang with reference to this experience until a dance house was erected for him and older colleagues made him into a skillful medicine man.

Chapter 12, The Yuki: Religion
Page 185 - It is said that long ago a man of the Matamno'm, one of the Witukomno'm or other southerly Yuki divisions, bought certain black wing feathers of the condor from the Kato, and information with them. This information was the creation myth as related in the Taikomol-woknam. The feathers were worn, but were also like an American book: the knowledge came with them. Because of this event the southern Yuki are said to sing the Taikomol songs somewhat differently from the Huchnom and Ta'no'm, to whom, evidently, this importation did not extend.
Pages 191-193, The Obsidian Ceremony - The Ta'no'm, and perhaps the Lilshikno'm, branches of the Yuki were the only ones who practiced the Obsidian Ceremony. They reportedly learned it from the Wailaki, although some say it was an old Ta'no'm ceremony. It is an adolescence ceremony involving both boys and girls. It is meant to identify future obsidian doctor shamans. "To the accompaniment of a certain song, the shamans thrust their sky-obsidians - that is, their long blades - into the children to their stomachs, it is said, and twist them. Those who bleed at the mouth will be obsidian-doctors themselves; the others cannot expect this career. Then, to another song, condor feathers are pushed into the patient youngsters so far that only the butt of the quill projects from their mouths. These are also twisted and signs of blood watched for."
Page 196-197, Shamanism: "The Yuki doctor or shaman, lamshimi, is a man, rarely a woman. Most frequently he receives the first intimation of his faculties in a dream, but it may also come to him in a waking appearance. His powers restupon intercourse with spirits of human shape and speech. There are bear doctors and rattlesnake doctors. In all these respects Yuki shamanism is of central Californian type and contrary to northwestern customs. Doctors dream of supreme spirits, upon whom their power depends, but they exercise their curative and other functions by the aid of lesser spirits, whom they actually control. Such personally owned spirits are called mumolno'm, or hushkaiemol, 'speaker, instructor.' The great spirits are Milili and the creator. Milili lives in the sky above the visible one, and owns an enormous block of obsidian of which all obsidians in the world are fragments that he has thrown down. He has the shape of an enormous eagle or condor."

Chapter 26. The Wintun: Kuksu Cult - Among the Wintun, or more specifically in the Patwin half of the Wintun stock, appears to be found a hotbed of the central California cult system based on a secret society and characterized by the Kuksu or "big-head" dances.
Page 378 - The Condor dance (Moloko/Moloku) was a minor dance practiced by the Patwin, Valley Maidu and Central Miwok.
Pages 379-381, The dance series: The dance ceremonies are performed in cycles, beginning about October and continuing to May. When the Condor dance was done, it was performed toward the end of the cycle. While the dance cycles had relationship to assuring adequate food (e.g., to increase the availability of deer), dances for animals without food value (coyote, grizzly bear, condor, nuthatch, turtle) were about magical symbolism.

Chapter 29, The Maidu: Religion and Knowledge.
Pages 435-436, the condor dance (Moloko) was part of the Maidu dance cycle. It is not well known. "The bird is the object of much regard by all California Indians."
COMMENT: Taken together, these findings of Kroeber demonstrate that throughout northern California north of San Francisco and west of the Sierra Nevada, the California condor was well-known enough to have been an integral figures in Native American mythology, religion, and ritual, and common enough to be a regular source of feathers and skins to be used as regalia and in medicine.

46. Kroeber, A. L. 1929. The Valley Nisenan. University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology 24(4):253-290.
The Valley Nisenan of the Sacramento Valley included the condor mo'lok' in their myth about the origin of fire.
COMMENT: Another instance of the condor being a central figure in northern California Native American myth and ritual.

47. Leach, F. A. 1929. A turkey buzzard roost. Condor 31(1):21-23.
"In the later [18]50's, in the central and northern parts of the state, it was not uncommon also to see the great Condors (Gymnogyps californianus) associated with flocks of a dozen or more buzzards, feeding on the remains of a dead horse or steer. I frequently saw them between the years of 1857 and 1860 on the bare hills of lower Napa Valley. They were so much larger than the buzzards that there was no trouble in distinguishing one from the other. Generally where there was a flock of the smaller birds gathered about a carcass, there would be two or three of the big Condors. It is my impression that after 1859 or 1860 the latter were seldom seen, in the Napa section at least; and I think the extinction of the Condor in northern California took place in the decade following 1860."
COMMENT: The author was seeing condors regularly, but apparently not in large numbers, north of San Francisco Bay, through the 1850s. It is unfortunate that he doesn't give any specific records to indicate seasons of use.

48. The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1805-1806)
COMMENT: The journals of this historic first trip by Europeans down the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean and back, has been published in a variety of forms. I have chosen to use the website "Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition Online"
[ http://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/index.html ], which employs (in the website's words) "the text of the celebrated Nebraska editionedited by Gary E. Moultonthe most accurate and inclusive edition ever published." [Citation: The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition Online is sponsored by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Center for Great Plains Studies, the University of Nebraska Center for Digital Research in the Humanities, and University of Nebraska Press].
Procedure on the trip was for a number of the participants to keep diaries, and to copy each others diaries, to make certain that all pertinent information was recorded somewhere. Therefore, considerable repetition occurs, but also some diaries were more original, and provide additional information. Diarists and others cited below: Captain Meriwether Lewis; Second Lieutenant William Clark; Sergeant Patrick Gass; Sergeant John Ordway; Privates Joseph Field and Reubin Field; Private Francois Labiche; and Private Joseph Whitehouse.

Wednesday 30 October 1805 [on the Columbia River near present-day Cascade Locks, Oregon]
(1) "A Cloudy morning. Some little rain all night, after eating a Slight brackfast of venison we Set out 2 miles to a point of a timbered bottom on Stard. Side halted to Dine, killed a Deer & 3 ducks & a Squirel of the Mountains we can plainly hear the roreing of the grand Shutes below, saw the large Buzard white head and part of the wings white" [Clark].
(2) "J. Shields Killed a Buck & Labiech 3 Ducks, here the river widens to about one mile large Sand bar in the middle, a Great [rock] both in and out of the water, large <round> Stones, or rocks are also permiscuisly Scattered about in the river. this day we Saw Some fiew of the large Buzzard Capt. Lewis Shot at one, those Buzzards are much larger than any other of ther Spece or the largest Eagle white under part of their wings &c." [Clark]
(3) "One of the hunters killed a Deer we Saw a great number of Swan and geese along the Shores. Some turkey bazzards which had white under their wings. Capt. Clark killed a black loon." [Ordway]
(4) "Some bottoms along the Shores covred with cotton timber, and under brush &c. the after part of the day rainy and foggey. one of the hunters killed a Deer. we Saw a great nomber of Swan and geese, turkey buzzards which had white on their wings &c. Capt. Clark killed a black loon." [Whitehouse]
(5) "We had a cool Cloudy morning. The latter part of this day we had some Rain & it became foggy. One of our hunters that had went out this morning, met us with a deer, which he had killed. We saw a great quantity of Geese & Ducks in the River, & Turkey buzzards which differed in Colour to those we had before seen, having white feathers on their wings." [Whitehouse]
COMMENT: Although some of the diarists identified these birds as "turkey buzzards with white on their wings," a Meriwether Lewis journal entry 9 April 1806 makes it clear these were not turkey vultures: "we saw some turkey buzzards this morning of the species common to the United states which are the first we have seen on this side the rocky mountains."
There is a minor discrepancy among the journals as to which date was the first the party saw condors. Clark's October 1805 weather summary puts the date as 29 October: "Saw the first Buzzard or Voultur of the Columbia." A copy of Clark's diary [identified as Voorhis No. 4] has "first Vulture of the Columbia seen to day" under 28 October, and "I shot at a vulture" on 29 October.

Monday 18 November 1805 [near Cape Disappointment on the Washington side of the Columbia River]
(1) "A little Cloudy this morning I set out at day light with 10 men & my Sevent, Shabono, Sergt. Pryer odderway Jos. & R. Fields Shannon Colter, wiser, Lebiech & york proceeded on Down the Shore from the 1st point passed a part of a fish about 1 mile above I supposed to be a Grampass- [dolphin?] The men killed 4 brants & <we> Lab. Killed 48 pliver of 2 different kinds yellow & black legs- I had them picked cooked and we Dined on them.. 3 miles to the Iner pt. of Cape Disapointmt passed a point & 2 Small nitches (Reuben Fields killed a Vulter)" [Clark]
(2) "Here we made a fire and dined on 4 brant and 48 Pliver which was killed by Labiech on the coast as we came on. Rubin Fields Killed a Buzzard of the large Kind near the meat of the whale we Saw: W. 25 lb. measured from the tips of the wings across 912 feet, from the point of the Bill to the end of the tail 3 feet 1014 inches, middle toe 512 inches, toe nale 1 inch & 312 lines, wing feather 212 feet long & 1 inch 5 lines diamiter tale feathers 1412 inches, and the head is 612 inches including the beak" [Clark]
(3) "Cloudy. Capt. Clark myself and 10 more of the party Set out in order to go down and see the passiffic ocean. we proceeded on round Hailys bay crossed two Rivers in Sd. bay. one of the party killed a verry large turkey buzzard which had white under its wings, and was nine feet from the points of the wings, and 3 feet 10 Inches in length, and every way proportined." [Ordway]
COMMENT: The head of this condor was preserved, and was displayed at Peale's Museum in Philadelphia.

Tuesday 19 November 1805 [Cape Disappointment area, Washington]
"began to rain a little before day and Continued raining untill 11 oClock I proceeded on thro emencely bad thickets & hills crossing 2 points to a 3rd on which we built a fire and Cooked a Deer which Jos. Field Killd. Saw a Dead Sturgen 10 feet long on the Sand, & the back bone of a Whale, as I conceived raind I then returned to the Cape & dined, Some curious Deer on this Course darker large boded Shorte legs Pronged horns & the top of the tale black under part white as usual.
"The Buzzard which Ruben Fields killed diameter of one feather is-114 & 1 Line from the tip of one to the tip of the other wing is 9 feet 0 Inches, from the point of the Bill to the tale is 3 feet 1014 Ins. middle Toe 512 Inches, Toe nale 1 Inches [Editor's note: 312? and one mark illegible] wing feather 2 feet 12 In. Tale feathers 1414 In. Head is 614 Inch long including the [beek?]" [Clark]
COMMENT: This still refers to the condor killed 18 November 1805.

Wednesday 20 November 1805 - Washington side of Columbia River mouth area
(1) "We had a fine clear morning; One of the men went out to hunt in the morning, and in a short time killed 2 deer. This day continued clear and pleasant throughout. At 4 o'clock in the afternoon, Capt. Clarke and his party returned to camp, and had killed a deer and some brants. They had been about 10 miles north of the cape, and found the country along the seashore level, with spruce- pine timber, and some prairies and ponds of water. They killed a remarkably large buzzard of a species different from any I had seen. It was 9 feet across the wings, and 3 feet 10 inches from the bill to the tail." [Gass]
(2) "A clear pleasant morning. Captain Lewis gave one of the Indians who had encamped near us a Medal. One of our hunters went out & killed two deer & several Brants. About 4 o'Clock P. M Captain Clark & party returned to our encampment.- they mentioned of having been about 10 Miles North of Cape disappointment, along the Sea Coast; & that they found the Country <after> six miles travel from our Camp mountaineous; and than a flatt low country, mostly covered with Spruce pine timber, some ponds, & low Priaries, as far as they could see. they had killed One Deer, & 40 fowl of different kinds, such as ducks, Brants, &ca. They had seen the Natives on the Sea shore, who they mention'd were a dirty lazy sett of people. They also had seen among them a Sturgeon which was about 8 feet long & had killed a very large uncommon Sized bird.- This bird had the resemblance of a Buzzard, it measured 9 feet from the point of one of its wings to the point of the other wing, the body was 3 feet 10 Inches in length, & the head & neck 67 Inches long & was white under its wings." [Whitehouse]
COMMENT: Further reference to the condor killed on 18 November 1805.

Friday 29 November 1805 [near present-day Astoria, Oregon]
"The winds are from Such points that we cannot form our Camp So as to prevent the Smoke which is emencely disagreeable, and painfull to the eyes- The Shore below the point at our Camp is formed of butifull pebble of various colours. I observe but fiew birds of the Small kind, great numbers of wild fowls of Various kinds, the large Buzzard with white wings, grey and bald eagle's, large red tailed Hawks, ravens & Crows in abundance, the blue Magpie, a Small brown bird which frequents logs & about the roots of trees- Snakes, Lizards, Small bugs, worms, Spiders, flyes & insects of different kinds are to be <found> Seen in abundance at this time." [Clark]

Saturday 30 November 1805 [Astoria area]
"Some rain and hail with intervales of fair weather for 1 and 2 hours dureing the night and untill 9 oClock this morning at which time it Cleared up fair and the Sun Shown, I Send 5 men in a Canoe in the Deep bend above the Peninsulear to hunt fowles, & 2 men in the thick woods to hunt Elk had all our wet articles dried & the men all employed dressing their Skins, I observe but few birds in this Countrey of the Small kinds- great numbers of wild fowl, The large Buzzard with white under their wings Grey & Bald eagle large red tailed hawk, ravins, Crows, & a small brown bird which is found about logs &c. but fiew small hawks or other smaller birds to be seen at this time" [Clark]

3 January 1806 [Clatsop County, Oregon]
(1) "At 11 A. M. we were visited by our near neighbours, Chief or Tiá, Co-mo-wool; alias Conia and six Clatsops. the[y] brought for sale some roots buries and three dogs also a small quantity of fresh blubber. this blubber they informed us they had obtained from their neighbours the Callamucks who inhabit the coast to the S. E. near whose vilage a whale had recently perished. this blubber the Indians eat and esteeme is excellent food. our party from necessaty have been obliged to subsist some length of time on dogs have now become extreemly fond of their flesh; it is worthy of remark that while we lived principally on the flesh of this anamal we were much more healthy strong and more fleshey than we had been since we left the Buffaloe country. for my own part I have become so perfectly reconciled to the dog that I think it an agreeable food and would prefer it vastly to lean Venison or Elk. a small Crow, the blue crested Corvus and the smaller corvus with a white brest, the little brown ren, a large brown sparrow, the bald Eagle and the beatifull Buzzard of the columbia still continue with us.- Sent Sergt. Gass and George shannon to the saltmakers who are somewhere on the coast to the S. W. of us, to enquire after Willard and Wiser who have not yet returned. Reubin Fields Collins and Pots the hunters who set out on the 26th Ulto. returned this evening after dark. they reported that they had been about 15 Miles up the river at the head of the bay just below us and had hunted the country from thence down on the East side of the river, even to a considerable distance from it and had proved unsuccessful having killed one deer and a few fowls, barely as much as subsisted them." [Lewis]
(2) "At 11 A. m. we were visited by our near neighbour Chief (or Tiá) Co mo wool alis Conia [NB: Coôné,] and Six Clat sops. they brought for Sale Some roots berries and 3 Dogs also a Small quantity of fresh blubber. this blubber they informed us they had obtained from their neighbours the Cal lá mox who inhabit the coast to the S. E near one of their Villages a Whale had recently perished. this blubber the Indians eat and esteem it excellent food. our party from necescity have been obliged to Subsist Some length of time on dogs have now become extreamly fond of their flesh; it is worthey of remark that while we lived principally on the flesh of this animal we wer much more helthy Strong and more fleshey then we have been Sence we left the Buffalow Country. as for my own part I have not become reconsiled to the taste of this animal as yet. a Small Crow, the blue Crested Corvus and the Smaller Corvus with a white breast, the little brown ren, and a large brown Sparrow, the bald Eagle, and the butifull Buzzard of the Columbia Still Continue with us, Send Sarjt. Gass and G. Shannon to the Salt makers who are on the Sea Coast to the S, W of us, to enquire after Willard & Wiser who have not yet returned. R. Field, potts & Collins the hunters who Set out on the 28th ulto. returned this evening after dark. they reported that they had been about 15 miles up the river which falls into Meriwethers Bay to the East of us, and had hunted the Country a considerable distance to East, and had proved unsucksesfull haveing killed one Deer and a fiew fowls, bearly as much as Subsisted them." [Clark]

16 February 1806 [Clatsop County, Oregon]
"Shannon and Labiesh brought in to us to day a Buzzard or Vulture of the Columbia which they had wounded and taken alive. I believe this to be the largest Bird of North America. it was not in good order and yet it wayed 25 lbs had it have been so it might very well have weighed 10 lbs. more or 35 lbs. between the extremities of the wings it measured 9 feet 2 Inches; from the extremity of the beak to that of the toe 3 feet 9 inches and a half. from hip to toe 2 feet, girth of the head 9 inches 34. Girth of the neck 712 inches; Girth of the body exclusive of the wings 2 feet 3 inches; girth of the leg 3 inches. the diameter of the eye 412/10ths of an inch, the iris of a pale scarlet red, the puple of a deep Sea green or black and occupies about one third of the diameter of the eye the head and part of the neck as low as the figures 1 2 is uncovered with feathers except that portion of it represented by dots foward and under the eye. (See likeness on the other Side of this leaf) the tail is Composed of twelve feathers of equal length, each 14 inches. the legs are 434 inches in length and of a whiteish colour uncovered with feathers, they are not entirely Smooth but not imbricated; the toes are four in number three of which are foward and that in the center much the longest; the fourth is Short and is inserted near the inner of the three other toes and reather projecting foward. the thye is covered with feathers as low as the Knee. the top or upper part of the toes are imbricated with broad scales lying transversly; the nails are black and in proportion to the Size of the bird comparitively with those of the Hawk or Eagle, Short and bluntly pointed-. the under Side of the wing is Covered with white down and feathers. a white Stripe of about 2 inches in width, also marks the outer part of the wing, imbraceing the lower points of the feathers, which [c]over the joints of the wing through their whole length or width of that part of the wing. all the other feathers of whatever part are of a Glossy Shineing black except the down, which is not glossy, but equally black. the Skin of the beak and head to the joining of the neck is of a pale orrange Yellow, the other part uncovered with feathers is of a light flesh Colour. the Skin is thin and wrinkled except on the beak where it is Smooth. This bird fly's very clumsily. nor do I know whether it ever Seizes it's prey alive, but am induced to believe it does not. we have Seen it feeding on the remains of the whale and other fish which have been thrown up by the waves on the Sea Coast. these I believe constitute their principal food, but I have no doubt but that they also feed on flesh. we did not meet with this bird un[t]ille we had decended the Columbia below the great falls; and have found them more abundant below tide water than above. this is the Same Species of Bird which R. Field killed on the 18th of Novr. last and which is noticed on that day tho' not fully discribed then I thought this of the Buzzard Specis. I now believe that this bird is reather of the Vulture genus than any other, tho' it wants Some of their characteristics particularly the hair on the neck, and the feathers on the legs. this is a handsom bird at a little distance. it's neck is proportionably longer than those of the Hawks or Eagle. Shannon also brought a Grey Eagle which appeared to be of the Same kind common to the U, States. it weighed 15 pds. and measured 7 feet 7 inches between the extremities of the wings-.
"Shannon and Labiesh informed us that when he approached this Vulture after wounding it, that it made a loud noise very much like the barking of a Dog. the tongue is long firm and broad, filling the under Chap and partakeing of its transvirs curvature, or its Sides forming a longitudinal Groove; obtuse at the point, the margin armed with firm cartelagenous prickkles pointed and bending inwards." [Clark]

17 February 1806 [Clatsop County, Oregon]
(1) "Shannon <& Labuishe> brought me one of the large carrion Crow or Buzzads of the Columbia which they had wounded and taken alive. [1] I bleive this to be the largest bird of North America. it was not in good order and yet it weighed 25 lbs. had it have been so it might very well have weighed 10 lbs mor or 35 lbs. between the extremities of the wings it measured 9 feet 2 inches; from the extremity of the beak to that of the toe 3 F. 912 In. from hip to toe 2 feet, girth of head 934 In. girth of the neck 712 Inches; do. of body exclusive of the wings 2 feet 3 Inches; do of leg 3 inches. diameter of the eye 412/10ths of an inch. the iris of a pale scarlet red, the puple of deep sea green or black and occupyed about one third of the diameter of the eye. the head and a part of the neck as low as the figures 1 2 is uncovered with feathers except that portion of it represented by dots (see likeness). the tail is composed of 12 feathers of equal length, each 14 inches. the legs are 434 inches in length and of a white colour un covered with feathers, they are not entirely smooth but not imbricated; the toes are four in number three of which are forward and that in the center much the longes; the fourth is short and is inserted near the inner of the three other toes and reather projecting forward. the thye is covered with feathers as low as the knee. the top or upper part of the toes are imbricated with broad scales lying transversly; the nails are blak and in proportion to the size of the bird comparitively with those of the halk or Eagle, short and bluntly pointed. the under side of the wing is covered with white down and feathers. a white stripe of about two inches in width, also marks the outer part of the wing, imbracing the lower points of the feathers, which cover the joints of the wing through their whole length or width of that part of the wing. all the other feathers of whatever part are glossey shining black except the down which is not glossey but equally black. the skin of the beak and head to the joining of the neck is of a pale orrange yellow the other part uncovered with feathers is of a light flesh colour. the skin is thin and wrinkled except on the beak where it is smooth. this bird flys very clumsily nor do I know whether it ever seizes it's prey alive, but am induced to beleive that it dose not. we have seen it feeding on the remains of the whale & other fish which have been thrown up by the waves on the sea coast. these I beleive constitute their prinsipal food, but I have no doubt but they also feed on flesh; we did not met with this bird untill we had decended the Columbia below the great falls, and have found them more abundant below tide-water than above. I beleive that this bird is reather of the Vulture genus than any other, tho' it wants some of their characteristics particularly the hair on the neck and feathers on the legs.- this is a handsome bird at a little distance. it's neck is proportionably longer than those of the hawks or Eagle. Shannon also brought me a grey Eagle which appeared to be of the same kind common to the U' States; it weighed 15 lb. and measured 7 Feet 7 Inches between the extremities of the wings.- At 4 P. M. Sergt. Gass and party arrived; they had killed eight Elk. Drewyer and Whitehouse also returned late in the evening, had killed one Elk.- Labuishe informed me that when he approached this vulture, after wounding it, that it made a loud noise very much like the barking of a dog & the tongue is large firm and broad, filling the under chap and partaking of it's transverse curvature, or it's sides colapsing upwards forming a longitudinal groove; obtuse at the point, the margin armed with firm cartelaginous prickkles pointed and bending inwards." [Lewis]

(2) "a little Snow fell this fournoon. three hunters came in with the meat of an Elk which they took out of a creek where some of the hunters had killed in the after part of the day Sgt. Gass and 2 men returned to the Fort. they had killed Eight Elk, and jurked 2 of them. Some of the men killed a gray Eagle and a new kind of a Turkey buzzad. [6] one man came from the Salt works for help to move in the Salt & kittles. Drewyer & Whitehouse came in had killed one Elk." [Ordway]
COMMENT: The observations of 16 February 1806 and 17 February 1806 refer to the same condor. The specimen was not preserved.

4 March 1806 [Columbia River area, Columbia County, Oregon]
"The turtle dove and robbin are the same of our country and are found as well in the plain as open country. the Columbian robbin [varied thrush] heretofore discribed seems to be the inhabitant of the woody country exclusively. The Magpy is most commonly found in the open country and are the same with those formerly discribed on the Missouri. the large woodpecker or log cock [pileated woodpecker], the lark woodpecker [flicker] and the small white woodpecker with a read head [sapsucker] are the same with those of the Atlantic states and are found exclusively in the timbered country. The blue crested Corvus and the small white breasted do [gray jay] have been previously discribed and are the natives of a piney country invariably, being found as well on the rocky mountains as on this coast.- the lark [meadowlark] is found in the plains only and are the same with those before mentioned on the Missouri, and not very unlike what is called in Virginia the old field lark.- The large blueish brown or sandhill Crain are found in the valley of the Rocky mountains in Summer and Autumn where they raise their young, and in the winter and begining of spring on this river below tidewater and on this coast. they are the same as those common to the Southern and Western States where they are most generally known by the name of the Sandhill crain. The vulture has also been discribed. there are two species of the fly-catch, a small redish brown species with a short tail, round body, short neck and short pointed beak. they have some fine black specks intermixed with the uniform redish brown. this the same with that which remains all winter in Virginia where it is sometimes called the wren. the second species has lately returned and dose not remain here all winter. it's colours are a yellowish brown on the back head neck wings and tail the breast and belley of a yellowish white; the tail is in proportion as the wren but it is a size smaller than that bird. it's beak is streight pointed convex reather lage at the base and the chaps of equal length. the first species is the smallest, in short it is the smalest bird that I have ever seen in America except the humming bird. both these species are found in the woody country only or at least I have never seen them elsewhere." [Lewis]

Sunday 16 March 1806
"Yesterday while I was absent getting our meat home, one of the hunters killed two vultures, the largest fowls I have ever seen. I never saw such as these except on the Columbia River and the seacoast." [Gass]
COMMENT: This observation is out of Patrick Gass' published trip report, and doesn't seem to be in the compiled record given on the Lewis and Clark Online website.

Friday 28 March 1806 [Deer Island, Columbia County, Oregon]
(1) "This morning we set out very early and at 9 A. M. arrived at the old Indian Village on Lard side of Deer Island where we found our hunters had halted and left one man with the two canoes at their camp; they had arrived last evening at this place and six of them turned out to hunt very early this morning; by 10 A. M. they all returned to camp having killed seven deer. these were all of the common fallow deer with the long tail. I measured the tail of one of these bucks which was upwards of 17 Inches long; they are very poor, tho' they are better than the black tailed fallow deer of the coast. these are two very distinct speceis of deer. the Indians call this large Island E-lal-lar or deer island which is a very appropriate name. the hunters informed us that they had seen upwards of a hundred deer this morning on this island. the interior part of the island is praries and ponds, with a heavy growth of Cottonwood ash and willow near the river. we have seen more waterfowl on this island than we have previously seen since we left Fort Clatsop, consisting of geese, ducks, large swan, and Sandhill crains. I saw a few of the Canvisback duck. the duckinmallard are the most abundant. one of the hunters killed a duck which appeared to be the male, it was a size less than the duckinmallard. the head neck as low as the croop, and back tail and covert of the wings were of a fine black with a small addmixture of perple about the head and neck, the belley & breast were white; some long feathers which lie underneath the wings and cover the thye were of a pale dove colour with fine black specks; the large feathers of the wings of the wings are of a dove colour. the legs are dark, the feet are composed of 4 toes each of which there are three in front connected by a web, the 4th is short flat and placed high on the heel behind the leg. the tail is composed of 14 short pointed feathers. the beak of this duck is remarkably wide, and is 2 inches in length, the upper chap exceeds the under one in both length and width, insomuch that when the beak is closed the under is entirly concealed by the upper chap. the tongue, indenture of the margin of the chaps &c. are like those of the mallard. the nostrils are large longitudinal and connected. a narrow strip of white garnishes the upper part or base of the upper chap; this is succeeded by a pale skye blue colour which occupys about one inch of the chap, is again succeeded by a transverse stripe of white and the extremity is of a pure black. the eye is moderately large the puple black and iris of a fine orrange yellow. the feathers on the crown of the head are longer than those on the upper part of neck and other parts of the head; these feathers give it the appearance of being crested.
"the men who had been sent after the deer returned and brought in the remnent which the Vultures and Eagles had left us; these birds had devoured 4 deer in the course of a few hours. the party killed and brought in three other deer a goose some ducks and an Eagle. Drewyer also killed a tiger cat. Joseph Fields informed me that the Vultures had draged a large buck which he had killed about 30 yards, had skined it and broken the back bone." [Lewis]
(2) "Sent after the deer returned with four only, the other 4 haveing been eaten entirely by the Voulturs except the Skin. The men we had been permitted to hunt this evening killed 3 deer 4 Eagles & a Duck. the deer are remarkably pore. Some rain in the after part of the day." [Clark]

(3) "the grey Eagles are pleanty on this Island they eat up three deer in a short time which our hunters had killed some of the hunters killed Several of them. The game is pleanty about this place & the Soil rich &c" [Ordway]
(4) "The morning was cloudy. We set out early, and at 10 o'clock came to Deer island; where those who had gone ahead in the small canoes had encamped, and all gone out to hunt except one. In a short time a hunter returned with a large deer, and we concluded to stay here all day and repair two of our canoes, that leaked. It rained at intervals during the day. Our hunters came in and had killed 7 deer in all. Some of the men went to bring in the meat, and others went out and killed some geese and ducks. ... When our men went for the deer, they found that the fowls had devoured four of the carcases entirely, except the bones. So they brought in the other two." [Gass]
(5) "Several of our Men were sent out in order to bring the Vension to where our Canoes lay, & a number of our hunters went out a hunting. Our officers concluded to stay on this Island 'till tomorrow, & we fixed our Encampment for the night. We found innumerable quantities of Snakes on this Island of different kinds. One of our hunters killed a wild Cat, & the others of our hunters killed several Eagles &ca" [Whitehouse]

6 April 1806 [near Rooster Rock-Latourell Falls, Columbia River, Oregon]
"we Set out and proceeded to the Camp of Gibson & party about 9 miles, they had killed 3 Elk at no great distance and Wounded two others so badly that we expect to precure them. Sent a party of Six men with Shannon who had killed the Elk to bring in the Elk, and formed a Camp, near which we had a Scaffold made ready to dry the meat as Soon as it Should arive. at 6 P. M. Shannon and party returned with the flesh of five Elk. the two he had wounded in the morning he found dead near the place he had Shot them. we had the meat cut into thin pices and Scaffored with a fire under it to dry out, which we expect in the course of the night Can be effected. four Indians from the great rapids visited us to day and Continued all day. they give the Same account of the Scercity of provisions above the falls as has already been given by others. This Supply of Elk I think by useing economey and in addition of roots and dogs which we may probably precure from he Nativs on Lewis's river will be Sufficient to last us to the Chopunnish where we Shall Meet with our horses-. and near which place there is Some deer to be precured.
"Frazer killed a pheasent of the Common kind. Jos: Field killed a vulture of that Speces already discribed." [Clark]

9 April 1806 [near Bonneville Dam, Multnomah County, Oregon]
"we saw some turkey buzzards this morning of the speceis common to the United states which are the first we have seen on this side the rocky mountains" [Lewis]
COMMENT: I record this here as a reminder that, when Lewis and Clark use the terms "buzzard" and "vulture" west of Cascade Locks they are never referring to the turkey vulture.

49. Loeb, E. M. 1926. Pomo folkways. University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology 19(2):149-404.
Pages 384-385, the Pomo condor dance is described.
COMMENT: The Pomo of Sonoma, Lake and Mendocino counties in California were well acquainted with the California condor, and it entered importantly into their various rituals and festivals.

50. Lord, J. K. 1866. The Naturalist in Vancouver Island and British Columbia. London.
Regarding the condor: "Mouth of Fraser River, seldom visits interior."
COMMENT: This sighting has been questioned, but there isn't enough information to judge one way or the other.

51. Lucia, E. 1968. Russian trek taps major history find - Persistence pays off. Sacramento Bee (Sacramento, California), 22 September 1968, page B5.
Newspaper account of Oregon Historical Society trip to Russian museums (see Reference 76), includes a photograph of Native American cape made of condor feathers.

52. Lyon, M. W. Jr. 1918. Report of the Secretary, Biological Society of Washington, 20 October 1917. Journal Washington Academy of Sciences 8(1):25-28.
In the fall of 1879, General T. E. Wilcox reported seeing two condors feeding on a sheep carcass near the "hot springs above Boise City."
COMMENT: If an accurate identification, one of the few far inland records of the California condor.

53. Macoun, J., and J. M. Macoun. 1909. Catalogue of Canadian birds. Ottawa, Ontario: Government Printing Office. 761pp.
The authors compiled the various Canadian records of California condors, mostly without comment. Fannin reported two condors September 1880 at Burrard Inlet, British Columbia. This species was said by David Douglas to be a common species as far north as the 49th parallel in 1826. At that time it was extremely abundant in the valley of the Columbia between the Grand Rapids and the Pacific. (Richardson.) Seen on Lulu Island
(in the Fraser river near its mouth) as late as "three or four years ago" by Mr. W. London. None seen since 1892. (Rhoads.) "On the l0th September, 1896, I saw between Calgary and the Rocky Mountains two fine specimens of the California vulture. (Fannin in The Auk, Vol. XIV, p. 89.) [Compilers' comment: "As the specimens were not collected we are inclined to doubt the occurrence of this species so far east."]
COMMENT: As noted elsewhere, the British Columbia records taken together would seem to indicate that condors did occasionally range that far north. For Fannin's Calgary record, see my comment for Reference 24.

54. McGregor, R. C. 1901. A list of the land birds of Santa Cruz County, California. Pacific Coast Avifauna 2.
E. H. Fiske (personal communication).-The condor was common a few years ago, when it could be seen feeding with the Turkey Vulture. The last I saw were two in September, 1885. A few still breed in the wild mountains north of SantaCruz.
Breninger (Nidologist 2[1895]:77) records the condor as breeding in the county, having its nest in a huge redwood tree.
Emerson, on the verbal authority of Cooper, records them common in 1866.
Joseph Skirm (List of Birds of Santa Cruz County, Cal. Ornithologist and Oologist 9(1884), pp. 149-150.-Tolerably common. I have seen them in a flock in company with Cathartes aura. It journeys along the coast.
COMMENT: I included the Santa Cruz County information just because it is the farthest north that a condor nest has been documented. [However, it is not the nest mentioned above by Breninger, which allegedly held two eggs.]

54A. Meretsky, V. J., and N. F. R. Snyder. 1992. Range use and movements of California condors. Condor 94(2):313-335.
In a limited radio-telemetry study of California condors, nesting birds were found to spend most of their time within about 45 miles of the nest site. Non-breeding birds sometimes traveled more than 100 miles.

55. Miller, A. H. 1942. A California Condor Bone from the Coast of Southern Oregon. Murrelet 23(3):77.
"A bit of tangible evidence serving to indicate the former range of the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) in Oregon is a radius of this species found in an Indian shell mound about 6 miles north of Brookings, Coos County. This bone, kindly placed at my disposal by Professor Joel V. Berreman of Stanford University, was taken, as he explains, from a coastal kitchen midden where it was associated with "cultural material which is not very old, though entirely pre-caucasian, and with remains of the modern fauna of the area."
" Gabrielson and Jewett's (Birds of Oregon, 1940: 180) summary of the occurrence of the California Condor in Oregon shows that most of the records for the species in that state are from the lower Columbia River Valley, west of the Cascade Mountains, and were made before 1840. In southern Oregon there are sight records for Drain, Douglas County, in 1903 and 1904.
The bone (Mus. Vert. ZooL No. 86642) now before me is broken at both ends but shows ample character to identify it and is not an artifact. It supports the previously published records of the former occurrence of the condor in southern Oregon and it points to extension of range westwardly to the coast. However, it must be realized that the Indians could have obtained the condor by trade or otherwise at some distance from the site of discovery of its remains."

56. Miller, L. 1911. Avifauna of the Pleistocene cave deposits of California. University of California, Bulletin of the Department of Geology 6(16):385-400.
Limestone caves in Shasta County, California, in the lower McCloud River area; 10 specimens of the Pleistocene condor Gymnogyps amplus in Potter Cave, and two specimens in Samwel Cave. The method of deposit was undetermined.

57. Miller, L. 1957 Bird remains from an Oregon Indian midden. Condor 59(1):59-63.
"By invitation of authorities at the University of Oregon, I undertook a general
survey of bird remains that were retrieved by workers in anthropology at an Indian campsite on the Columbia River at Five Mile Rapids, five miles east of The Dalles, Oregon. Dr. J. Arnold Shotwell of the University of Oregon first suggested that there might be condor bones in the collection. Dr. L. S. Cressman, under whose guidance the work was carried on, sent me two shipments aggregating approximately nine thousand bird bones or fragments and asked that they be classified as to genus. Results of this study are here presented".
"The Five Mile Rapids Site (WS-4) represents an early Indian village that was seemingly occupied continuously for a great many years and was later covered over by a hard-pan stratum several feet in thickness. Above this hard-pan subsequent fill and changes in culture are indicated. The bird remains are all from the lower deposit and the second shipment all from the part later designated as the condor layer. Dr. Cressman and his advisers consider the age to be at least 9000 years. Carbon-14 tests have lately been completed that indicate slightly less than 8000 years. The site is situated in what is today designated as the Great Basin fauna1 area.
"The specimens came to me in packages representing sections and levels as they were retrieved in the "dig." A package might contain one fragment or it might contain fifty. The material from each package was spread out upon a tray, classified, recorded and returned to its container. There were 51 packages in the first shipment of 3000 bones and 69 packages in the second of 6000 bones.
"Except for fracture, the bones are well preserved, colored warm brown and somewhat mineralized. Heated in the Bunsen burner flame they gave off some white smoke but very little odor. Surface markings were as sharply defined as in a freshly prepared specimen, although seldom was an unbroken bone encountered."
"Approximately nine thousand bones were identified as to genus or species and there developed some interesting "pictures of the past." Surprisingly few species were represented with any degree of frequency. Gull (Larus sp.) bones were in every sizable package and usually in quantity. Cormorants (Phalacrocorax) occurred in 89 packages, and 105 contained Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) . The next species in abundance, to my surprise was the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) which appeared in 53 packages. Only two bones were recognized as duck and seven as goose. Twelve packages yielded the Raven (Corvus corax), twelve the Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) and five a magpie (Pica). One bone was that of a coot (Fulica americana) and one a buteonid hawk, and most surprising of all, there was a single bone of the extinct vulture Coragyps occidentalis.
"Less than a dozen bones in all showed signs of immaturity; these represented raven, crow, hawk, falcon, and goose."
"Gymnogyps californianus. California Condor. Indian middens from western Oregon have yielded condor remains (A. H. Miller, 1942) in limited quantities but eastern Oregon belongs in the Great Basin fauna1 area where condors are unknown in historical time. Subfossil remains in Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas have represented the genus but sparingly. In these cases also there is an uncertain association with several extinct species as well as with Basketmaker types of human artifacts.
"The remains here discussed are surprisingly abundant, some bones were complete, others easily restored and all were unweathered. The exact specific identity is open to some question. Gymnogyps amplus was described from the California Pleistocene on the basis of its broad tarsometatarsus (L. Miller, 1911: 390). A generation later all the Pleistocene remains of Gymnogyps were assigned to the species amplus by Fisher ( 1944) who considers it probably the ancestor of our Recent bird. He bases his opinion on characters of the skull--an element regrettably imperfectly represented in Indian middens thus far. Limb and body elements of the two species were not recognizably different according to Fisher. I am not in complete agreement with him as to his major conclusion.
The type specimen of G. amplus is a tarsometatarsus that is "very broad as compared with Gymnogyps californianus (Shaw; foot set inward on the shaft so that the median line of the shaft falls outside the center of the foot" (Miller, 1911:390). In 1941 I re-examined this specimen in comparison with the great series of Pleistocene condor bones in the Los Angeles Museum but no specimen was found that duplicated the great width of tarsus seen in the Shasta bird. The only tarsi recovered from the midden are very definitely of the californianus type, so I am recording them as such, although it is freely admitted that there may have been a slightly different facies of condor inhabiting the Great Basin area during late Pleistocene or very early Recent time. Some of the Indian midden bones are larger than any in our limited series of Recent material but others are smaller. The Pleistocene material has a marked tendency toward larger size.
"Subfossil condor remains have been discovered in the main by archeologists. The suggestion is that condors have been of interest to the American Indian from Basketmaker time down to the present and all the way from western Texas to Oregon (Howard and Miller, 1933 ; Wetmore and Friedmann, 1933)".

58. Moen, D. B. 2006. Analysis of former condor nest potential along cliffs of the Columbia Gorge and selected tributaries. Field report to The Oregon Zoo (Portland, Oregon).
"Tribes from the mouth of the Columbia River to the Snake River have recorded and know of the condor. The Sahaptin names for condor are Canahuu or Pacnanhu (James Selam and Eugene Hunn pers. com.). A Wasco name depicting the spirit of condor is Ach' ig chiq (Aguilar 2005). Even the Blackfoot Nation residing on the eastern side of The Rockies had a name for the condor, Omaxsapi- tau, who was reported as an irregular visitor that fed on bison carcasses (Nisbet 2003).

"During an interview with Columbia Plateau basket historian Mary Schlick, Wasco Chief Nelson Wallulatum explained that his people from The Dalles area traditionally kept baby condors in their villages "to keep the thunder and lightening spirits from striking" (Schlick 1994). If condor chicks were present then condor nests were near by. Rearing large raptors in villages is a common practice among indigenous cultures for the purpose of ceremony and gleaning feathers for regalia. Chief Nelson Wallulatum's testimony of the cultural use of condors in villages of the Celilo area is supported by archaeological evidence at The Dalles revealing the ceremonial use of condor bones (Hansel Kuhn 2003)."

"While stories of the Thunderbird are more spiritual in nature, news of nest locations spill over from the mystical to suggest that condors once nested in this region. Several Pacific Northwest tribes describe specific locations where the Thunderbird has his home. These stories, inspired by the condor, point in a crude direction toward possible condor nest sites. For the coastal Salish people near the Frazier River, Black Tusk, a large monolithic peak is the Thunderbird's home (Shearar 2000). For the Saanich (WSANEC) people of southern coastal B.C., the home of the Thunderbird is yaas, the highest part of the Malahat ridge on the western side of the Sannich inlet (Turner 2005). The Quileute tribe of coastal Washington, identify the Blue Glacier of Mt. Olympus as the spirit bird's home (Clark 1953). For the coastal Chehalis and Tillamook tribes, the Thunderbird's home is near the mouth of The Columbia River on Saddleback Mountain, 'where it lays a nest of eggs' (OR Zoo website). In addition, a more direct report of nesting condors comes from the Klamath Basin tribes of the Oregon and California border who report condors to have nested in the broken off tops of coast redwoods there (Robert Kentta and W. Lara Sr., pers. com.)".

"According to Kalapuya story teller Esther Stutzman, condors of the upper Umpqua River area were known as 'Grandfather Buzzard' who was 'capable of blocking out the sun with his wings.' In the Kalapuya tradition Grandfather Buzzard dispatched smaller Turkey buzzards as henchmen, or spies, to watch people carefully in order to discover their weaknesses. Once Grandfather Buzzard knew of someone's weaknesses they were relayed to Coyote who would exploit them through trickery."

"Besides being at the center of many traditional stories from the coast to the interior, the condor is also displayed as an ancient design in the traditional basketry of inland Columbia Plateau tribes. In addition, condors appear in the work of tribal artists using ceramic, tile, dry point, beads, and looms (Lillian Pitt and Olivia Wallulatum pers. com.; Appendix C). The geometry of this Mid-Columbia condor image bares a remarkable resemblance to the ancient pictographs near the old Wishxam village identified by Olivia Wallulatum as condor in origin (pers. com.; Appendix C). Wasco basket weaver Pat Courtney Gold links this condor design to Columbia River petroglyphs of thunderbirds, most of which are now lost under water from the dams in the Gorge (Appendix C- note in the photo that the petroglyph from British Columbia shows what looks like an adult with a juvenile begging from below). John Woodward also reports several Thunderbird pictographs throughout the Gorge area including a large yellow pictograph in a canyon off of the Deschutes River (Pers. Com. 2006)."
COMMENT: The identities of the California condor, "Thunderbird," and other real and mythical birds seem much less clear among Oregon Native Americans than with their California counterparts. Nevertheless, some of the cultural and archeological materials point to a general knowledge of the condor among Northwest tribes.
In his survey of some potential condor nest sites in northern Oregon, Moen gives unwarranted credit to a number of sight records of California condors in Oregon as late as the 1950s and 1960s. I think condors could have been easily overlooked in northwestern California or southwest Oregon perhaps even as late as the 1920s or 1930s. With the great increase in the human population generally, the number of potential condor observers, and the great increase in interest in condors generated by Koford's studies, after 1950, it seems impossible that condors nearly 500 miles north of the closest known populations could have been overlooked.

59. Newberry, J. S. 1857. Report upon the birds of the route. Pages 73-110 in: R. S. Williamson and H. L. Abbot, Report upon Explorations for a Railroad Route, from the Sacramento Valley to the Columbia River. Volume VI, Report of Explorations and Surveys to Ascertain the most Practicable and Economical Route for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean 1854-5.
Page 73, "Cathartes californianus, Californian Vulture. A portion of every day's experience in our march through the Sacramento valley was a pleasure in watching the graceful evolutions of this splendid bird This vulture, though common in California, is much more shy and difficult to shoot than its associate, the turkey buzzard (C. aura), and is never seen in such numbers We had, however, on our first entrance into the field, many opportunities of shooting this bird, but were unwilling to burden ourselves with it. After we left the Sacramento valley, we saw very few in the Klamath basin, and none within the limits of Oregon. It is sometimes found there, but much more rarely than in California A fine specimen was presented to Dr. Sterling on his return to San Francisco, and was for some time kept alive. He succeeded, however, in tearing from his legs the cord which confined him, and escaped."
COMMENT: Newberry's party left Benicia, California, 10 July and were in the Sacramento Valley until they left Redding 28 July. They reached the Klamath Basin ca 15 August, and spent more than a week there before traveling up the east side of the Cascades to The Dalles by 17 September. They spent almost a month in the Cascades around Mt. Hood, and reached the Willamette Valley by 15 October. They started south through the Willamette Valley by 22 October, were in the Umpqua area by 31 October, around Grants Pass by 3 November, at Yreka 7 November, and back to the Sacramento Valley 15 November. [I assume the Sacramento Valley condor records were on the trip north (because of the wording of Newberry's summary), but that isn't clear from the record.]

60. Peale, T. R. 1848. Mammalia and Ornithology. Volume VIII, United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842 under the command of Charles Wilkes, U. S. N. Philadelphia: C. Sherman.
Page 58: "This {California condor] cannot be considered a common bird in Oregon; we first saw it on the plains of the Willamette River, but subsequently observed that they were much more numerous in California, from the fact that the carcasses of large animals are more abundant, which they certainly prefer to the dead fish on which they are obliged to feed in Oregon, and all the countries north of the Spanish settlements in California."
COMMENT: This is a summary statement, some of it based on Peale's actual observations [Reference 62] and some based on general (and sometimes erroneous) information circulating at that time (e.g., condors feeding on fish, which Peale probably did not see).

61. Peck, G. D. 1904. The Cal. Vulture in Douglas Co,, Oregon. The Oologist 21(4):55.
"June 1, 1903, I saw two Cal. Vultures. They were at a great height and I could not have identified them if I had not often seen them in Los Angeles County, Cal. I saw several of the great Vultures during the month of June. The birds that I saw were about thirty miles from the coast. Is it possible that there is a colony on the coast of Southern Oregon? We know that they straggled to the Columbia at an early day. Would like to hear through Oologist from some California Ornithologist in regard to them."
COMMENT: George Peck, living in Salem, Oregon in 1904, had seen condors in southern California, and was a frequent contributor to the ornithological and oological journals. Later reviewers who talked to him felt that the identifications were accurate [Reference 30]. They are the last "certain" records of condors north of California.

62. Poesch, J. 1961. Titian Ramsay Peale 1799-1885 and his journals of the Wilkes Expedition. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The American Philosophical Society.
Pages 190-198, the journal of Titian Ramsay Peale from 22 September 1841 to 28 October 1841:
--Wednesday 22nd (22 September 1841): Crossed the Umpqua mountains, they are about 3000 feet elevation 1841from the plaines, very steep and covered with Spruce and Lamberts pine trees, with a thick undergrowth of Arbutus, Dogwood, etc.
The days Journey was a most arduous one although we gained but 16 or 18 miles
--Thursday 23rd( In the same general area as on 22 September): The Umpqua mountains abound with elk.. I killed three, day before yesterday He was the leader of a herd of about a dozen The Umpqua mountains are the southern limit of the "White tail" Deer Here we killed the last as predicted by the hunters who were familiar with the route. They were replaced entirely by the "Black-tail," which north of this we have seen only on rocky mountain ridges.
--Friday Sept. 24th. Started soon after sunrise, crossed rolling prairie land bordered by round hills Saw numbers of Lewis's Partridge (mountain quail) Besides them we saw today Goldenwing woodpeckers (red var.) [flickers], Ravens, Crows, Stellers & Florida Jays, Californian Vultures, and a few larks.
The country was mostly burned by the Indians. We traveled seven hours, and halted on Youngs river (creek) in a burned prairie
--Sat 25th. Started at 9 A. M. and continued our course over burned woods and small patches of prairie, abounding in black tail Deer Reached and crossed "Rogues river" before night

Monday 27th. Our course was nearly N E up Rogues river for about two hours, when we struck off southwesterly through a pass in the mountains and reached extensive plaines.. Today w saw the first antelopes Encamped on the margins of a small stream, & the plaines being all burned, had but poor provender for our horses.
--Tuesday Sept. 28th. The country was much the same as that already passed, excepting that we have a high mountain range on our left (estimated about 3000 ft). It was crowned with granite rocks, a few masses of which lay scattered about the prairies we expect to reach the "bloody pass" tomorrow [where] several of our party have been engaged with the Savages [in past years].
--Wednesday Sept. 29th. Passed the "bloody pass" without difficulty and without seeing an Indian, only a few of their tracks, and after surmounting a high mountain ridge, a view of Singular grandeur was spread before us. On our right the mnts were burning, and sent up immence masses of smoke. On our left was the snowy summits of Mount Chasty (Tsasty?)-extensive plaines were in front of us We had a hot and thirsty ride of about 20 miles to the Tchasty river, near to which on a small branch we halted for the night. [They remained in camp here 30 September.]

--Friday Oct 1st. Started earlier than usual to cross the Tchasty, or Klamet river about two miles above our camp Had a hot dry and wearisome Journey of 20 miles over arid prairies, without finding water until we reached a branch of the Klamet Saw a few herds of 12-18 Antelopes California quails were very abundant
--Sat Oct 2nd. Continued our route over dry plaines abounding with Antelopes in herds of 12 or 15 each after traveling 18 miles reached a small branch of the Klamet, just where it left the mountains Prairie wolves (Canis latraus) were numerous The summits of Mount Tchasty presented a beautiful view from our camp A herd of Mountain Sheep was seen by one of our hunters
--Sunday, Oct 3d. Crossed a spur of the Tchasty mts at about 2000 feet elevation, from which we had beautiful views of the snowy regions on our left and some beautiful granite peaks. Descending the opposite slope we reached the head waters of the rio Sacramento about noon, having crossed what may be called a natural boundary of California.
Our days journey was not more than 15 miles, all the way through open pine woods, recently burned and in a few places still burning.
--Monday 4th. [The group went about 15 miles and camped on the Sacramento River.]
--Tuesday Oct 5th. [They continued on down the Sacramento River.] I saw two species of marmots, and several birds not seen before. Sevl Californian Vultures, etc., and after hurrying on 22 miles we encampd in a rocky dell near the main stream, now increased to a respectable size.

[7 October - 9 October 1841: the group continued to descend the Sacramento River canyon.]
--Sunday Oct 10th. Two and a half hours of traveling over stony barren hills, brought us clear of the mountains, a wide plaine before us with opn groves of oaks, and along the river cotton wood and willows.
--Monday Oct 11th. [The group traveled down the Sacramento Valley 25 miles. They saw no game.]
--Tuesday Oct 12th. Made but a short uninteresting march of 10 miles Game abounded, Elk, Antelopes, deer, and Bears: 6 Grizzly Bears and two deer were killed, and one black bear seen.
--Wednesday 13th. The wolves were so bold last night that they entered our camp and carried off a fresh bear skin from the side of a fire, and within a few feet of a tent. Numbers of Californian Vultures, Turkey buzzards, and Ravens were assembled to enjoy the feast we have prepared for them A number of Antelopes and a few deer were seen
--Thursday Oct 14th. Passed several herds of Elk, Antelopes and Deer,Wolves & Bears numerous
--Friday Oct 15th. Our journey was over a vast level plaine 25 miles. The atmosphere was smoky, hills invisible on either side and very few trees to be seen The "Butes" a range of insular mountains, were in sight from here. On them, the numerous bands of animals now covering the plains are said to collect in winter when all this immence extent of country is covered with water.

--Sat Oct 16th. We crossed the base of the "Bute after crossing the prairie Antelopes plenty but shy.
--Sunday Oct 17th. Crossed a perfectly level plaine of 15 miles to Feather river (eight miles above its junction with the Sacramento). There was but a few groves of Oaks near the Stream Saw many small herds of Antelopes & Elk

Monday 18 October - Wednesday 20 October 1841. [The party progressed on to Sacramento, visited Sutter's New Helvetia.]
--Thursday Oct 21st. Started to San Francisco by land We traveled 15 miles over a level prairie when arriving at a pond of water, we encamped in a grove of oaks. On the road saw numbers of Antelopes (Califn "Berendes") and prairie wolves (Califn Collote). The Indians here do not burn the prairies as in Oregon and near the mountains.
--Friday 22nd. Crossed the Rio Cosmes soon after starting Had a warm, dry ride over a level plaine without water until we reached the Rio de los Mogueles about noon
--Sat Oct 23rd. Started early, crossed the same kind of level prairie, to rio Joaquin, which is not usually fordable, but the season being unusually dry, we succeeded in crossing without damage reached a lagoon filled with geese & Ducks, once surrounded by Antelopes & sandhill cranes [They rode all night, crossing a range of hills, and reaching another grassy valley.] In the course of the day we saw several herds of Wild horses, Elk, and Antelopes.
--Sunday, Oct 24th. [The party reached Mission San Jose.] Passed a rancho, on the way to Mr. Forbe's around which were walls built of bullock skulls. Plaines in all directions covered with carcasses in different stages of decomposition, the hides and tallow only being preserved. As we traveled in the dark last night, the continued rattleing and breaking of bones under our horses feet had a most singular and unpoetic effect; any but Californian horses would have been frightened by it.
--Monday 25 October - Thursday 28 October 1841: {The party traveled on to San Francisco via Mission Santa Clara and the Peninsula.]

COMMENT: The journal of Titian Ramsay Peale from 22 September 1841 to 28 October 1841 is reproduced on pages 190-198, during which time he traveled from present-day Douglas County, Oregon, over the Siskiyou Mountains to the Sacramento Valley, and on to Sacramento, San Jose and eventually San Francisco, California. Unfortunately, Peale's journal covering 18 July 1841 (when the Wilkes Expedition reached the mouth of the Columbia River) to 21 September 1841 was lost, and there is no record of his biological observations for that period of travel. From the official narrative of the Wilkes Expedition, it is possible to determine where he was during the "missing journal" months [C. Wilkes (1844), Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Philadelphia: C. Sherman - Volume V, Chapter VI, pp. 229-266]: July through August 1841, on the Columbia River between the mouth and Fort Vancouver; began the trip south up the Willamette Valley about 1 September 1841, at Champoeg 3 September, and leaving the Willamette Valley south of present-day Eugene, Oregon, 15 September 1841. The party reached the Umpqua River 20 September 1841, and Peale's journal begins 22 September 1841 in the "Umpqua Mountains," south of present-day Roseburg and probably beyond Myrtle Creek.
From Peale's trip summary [Reference 60], we know the party saw no California condors on the lower Columbia River from July through August. The first they saw were on "the plains of the Willamette," between 3 and 15 September 1841. There were condors in the Umpqua Mountains 24 September 1841, then apparently none were seen until the party was south beyond Mt. Shasta 5 October 1841. In the Sacramento Valley in mid-October, there were "numbers" of condors.

63. Portenko, L. A. 1971. Information on California condor specimens at the Zoological Institute Academy of Sciences in Leningrad, Russia (letter to Sanford R. Wilbur).
There are four specimens taken in the 1840s, from the descriptions three adults and one immature (I have not seen photos of them.) Only one has a specific collecting year (1841), and only two of them are definitely from Sonoma County, California. The collector of all four was I. G. Voznesensky, who collected in Sonoma County and in the southern part of the Sacramento Valley in 1840 and 1841 [References 1, 7, 12].

64. Putnam, R. 1928. The letters of Roselle Putnam. (Transcript and notes by Sheba Hargreaves). Oregon Historical Quarterly 29(3):242-264.
Umpqua River area, Oregon, letters written between 1849 and 1852
Page 255-256, letter written from Yoncalla, Umpqua, 25 January 1852 to Roselle Putnam's in-laws: "At this time there are four men living around the foot of Yoncalla who have between four & five hundred head of cattle whose chief pasturage is on this hill - besides fifty head of horses and an unnumbered stock of hogs - there are as yet no sheep kept on it - but umpqua valley is reconed to be as good a place for them as there is in the world they are particularly valuable stock owing to their convenient size for the mining trade - the wood is also valuable selling for 25 cents a pound as it comes from the sheeps back - there are a great many sheep in the valley in comparison with the number of inhabitants - but to finish Yoncalla - my fathers claim lies at the foot of it - he keeps the postoffice & called it after this hill - he is very fond of hunting and this is his hunting ground he has killed two bear and upwards of forty deer on it since he has been living there - the wolves in this country are very large and numerous there has been a great many of them killed this winter, in this neighborhood with strycknine, Charles put out upwards to thirty doses of it, and I suppose every one killed a wolf at least the physician from whom we got it said it woud - we have seen two that died near the house - notwithstanding the quantity of poison they have aken - they are still to be heard every night or two howling round us & one impudent fellow has been in the habit of coming every night to pick up the scraps about the house & even in the porch a couple of nights ago - we gave him a dose of poison and he has not been back since - they have never killed any of our cattle though they do frequently kill cattle & horses"
Page 262, letter written from Yoncalla, Umpqua, 9 February 1852 to Roselle Putnam's mother-in-law, gives a description of the plant and animal life of the area, but no particular time of year is implied: "the largest wild bird in the country is the vulture which is only an overgrown buzzard - it only preys on the dead carcase - I saw one measured which I think was between ten and eleven feet from the point of one wing to the point of the other."
COMMENT: In my 1978 compilation of condor mortalities [Reference 81], I identified the dead condor as having been shot, which is an unjustified conclusion from the information given. Similarly, there is no justification for linking the use of strychnine to that particular condor death. The wolf poisoning occurred at some unspecified date in the winter of 1851-1852, before 25 January 1852. The comments on condors were made in a general description of the plant and animal life of the Umpqua area, and could have referred to any time from 1849 to 1852.

65. Reed, G. W., and R. Gaines, editors (1949), The journals, drawings and other papers of J. Goldsborough Bruff, April 2, 1849-July 20, 1851. New York: Columbia University Press.
Page 204 - 20 October 1849 - 6 dead and 1 abandoned ox on road Saw on the road side a small black & yellow fox, dead, also a dead deer, and numerous remains of them. Shot a large very brown Vulture, measuring 9 feet from tip to tip.
Page 240 - 15 November 1849 - Poyle and his comrades returned late, unsuccessful. Shot nothing, nor obtained the deer left hanging to a tree; the eagles and vultures had left nothing but the skeleton & skin; an officious and disagreeable interferance with our rights.
P. 245 - 19 November 1849 - {They killed one of their oxen.] For some of the meat, Seymours young man assisted, to skin & cut up the meat. Poyle, bro't a sack full of meat up from the ravine _ mile down, and we had liver & coffee for dinner-After dinner P. returned for balance of the meat, and reached the spot just in time to save it, as the eagles & vultures were gathering apace, and commenced operations.
P. 301 - 6 February 1850 - 3 large vultures passed over.
P. 306 - 19 February 1850 - About 4 p.m. I noticed 12 vultures, soaring very high, in circles, over head, and moving toward the S.W.
P. 307 - 20 February 1850 - Numerous vultures & eagles flying about.
P. 308 - 24 February 1850 - Many eagles & vultures soaring over head.-No doubt attracted by the ox carcasses.
P. 325 - 29 March 1850 - Saw a bald eagle and several vultures flying overhead.
P. 311 - 4 March 1850 - Parties returned at Sun-set, and soon after. They bro't in a deer. Yesterday they shot one, and eat half, hanging the other half in a tree: Today they found but one ham of it, the eagles & vultures had feasted upon it.
COMMENT: Bruff's observations were in the Sierra foothills of Plumas County, California. Some of the vulture sightings could be of turkey vultures, but they are uncommon at this latitude and elevation between November and February.

65-1 [added 10 February 2009] Revere, J. W. (1849). A tour of duty in California. Boston, Massachusetts, J. H. Francis.

Page 133, at Clear Lake ("The Laguna"), Lake County, California, early autumn 1846: "In the evening...we had a visit from a party of Indians, both male and female, attired in head-dresses composed of the black feathers of the large Californian vulture, which fell down their backs. The men were painted all over with stripes and spots, and the women wore kilts or short petticoats made of flax or hemp hackled out and fastened round the waist, but so fashioned as not to impede the motions of their limbs."

65A. Rhoads, S. N. 1893. The birds observed in British Columbia and Washington during the spring and summer 1892. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 45:21-65.
California condors reportedly used to be common in British Columbia

66. Ross, A. 1956. The fur hunters of the far West. Norman: Univ. Oklahoma Press.
Page 137: probable record of condor in eastern Washington or Oregon, fall 1818. In an entry in the spring of 1819, Donald McKenzie was at Fort Nez Perce (Walla Walla) reminiscing about "last fall" (fall 1818) when he was on a trapping trip to the southeast and south of Walla Walla: "Eagle and vulture of uncommon size fly about the rivers."
COMMENT: Considering that McKenzie differentiated between eagles and vultures, and identified his vultures as "of uncommon size," this is probably a good record - one of the few from east of the Cascades.

67. Schaeffer, C. E. 1951. Was the California condor known to the Blackfoot Indians? Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 41(6):181-191.
Native Americans of Montana and Alberta, Canada, preserve a tradition of a "big eagle" that visited the region infrequently. They believed that the capturer of this bird was given special powers, and that the appearance of the bird was a portent of unusual events to occur. The last one reported was ca 1900.
COMMENT: Some of the "big eagle" descriptions are remarkably condor-like (ruff feathers, bald head, large size); others are clearly not of condors (barred or spotted tail, talons, feathered heads). It may be that the actual appearance of a few vagrant condors blended into general folklore, so that the separations were obscured.

67A. Schlick, M. D. (1994). Columbia River Basketry: Gifts of the Ancestors, Gifts of the Earth. Seattle, Washington, University of Washington Press.

There are photographs of several baskets from Columbia River tribes that have designs on them that might represent condors. The only actual discussion of condors is on pp. 65-66: "A logical identification of the large figures with out-spread wings that usually are labeled eagles or butterflies has been made by Wasco Chief Nelson Wallulatum. 'There were condors on the river long ago,' he said. 'Lewis and Clark saw them. Those birds look like condors.' He added that the people on the river kept baby condors in their camps 'to keep the thunder and lightning from striking. They called them lightning bird.'" [NOTE: Chief Wallulatum's comments were made in 1989.]

68. Scouler, J. 1905. Dr. John Scouler's journal of a voyage to northwest America. Oregon. Hist. Q. 6(2):276-287.
Sept. 1825, Fort Vancouver, Washington, a condor collected
From his journal 20 September 1825 [in "Annals of Gymnogyps"]: "Today I took my leave of Fort Vancouver On arriving on board the ship much of my time was employed in procuring and preserving birds. The incessant rains we experienced at the advanced period of the year rendered the accumulation of plants hopeless. The river at this season was beginning to abound in birds. I obtained specimens of. And a species of Vultur, which I think is nondescript. My birds are principly obtained from the Indians who would go through any fatigue for a bit of tobacco."
COMMENT: John Scouler was in the Pacific Northwest April-September 1825, much of it along the lower Columbia River between Fort Vancouver and the Pacific Ocean. This mention of collecting a condor appears to be his only reference to the species.

69. Simons, D. D. 1983. Interactions between California condors and humans in prehistoric far western North America. Pages 470-494 in S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson (editors), Vulture Biology and Management. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
A. Archeological occurrences of the condor have been found at 13 sites in Oregon and California, ranging in age from 10,000 years ago to early historic times. There are two Oregon sites, 7 in the San Francisco Bay area, and 4 in southern California. Types of material:
1. Unmodified remains - Five Mile Rapids, The Dalles, Oregon: 7000 to 10,000 years old, about 63 different condors (10% of the total bird remains).
Lone Ranch Creek shellmound, Brookings, Oregon: used until ca A. D. 1800, one bird represented. Hotchkiss mound, Sacramento-San Joaquin delta, California, ca 1000 years old. Avila Bridge site, San Luis Obispo Co., California, 5000 years old. San Miguel Island, California, ca 1000 years old.
2. Intentional burials - Single condor skeletons found at the West Berkeley shellmound, Alameda Co., California, and the Emeryville shellmound, Alameda County, California. The material in these sites has been dated ca 2500 years ago.
3. Bone artifacts - (a) Tube/whistles made from the long bones of condor wings, some undecorated and some carved with designs, found at the Berryessa Adobe, north San Francisco Bay area, California (one tube, site occupied to the early 1800s), McCauley mound, San Joaquin Co., California (4 tubes, site occupied 500 to 1500 years ago), and Hotchkiss mound, Contra Costa Co., California (3 bone tubes, about 1000 years old).
(b) "Wands" made of condor humeri, covered with natural asphalt and decorated with shell beads - two found (likely made from the same condor) at Old Bridge site, Calaveras Co., California (3500 years old).
(c) Condor mandible apparently intentionally buried with human skeleton and grave goods at Windmiller site, Sacramento Co., California (2500-3000 years old)
4. Feather artifacts - At Bowers Cave, Los Angeles Co., California, twenty-three decorative bands were recovered, ten of which included condor feathers (Late Pleistocene to early Historic site)
5. Rock art - Santa Barbara County, California (late Prehistoric-early Historic period)

B. Condor remains that are probably the result of "natural" deposition, rather than the result of human interaction, include the La Brea tar pits, and most of the known cave locations. This includes Potter Creek Cave and Samwell Cave in Shasta County, California.

C. Condors as a source of shamanistic powers: "Shamans in California were religious functionaries in charge of many of the relationships between humans and supernatural forces. Shamans embraced many roles, including those of philosopher, physician, psychiatrist, diviner and controller of natural phenomena."
1. The condor as a principal source of shamanistic power, frequently appearing in a dream or vision: Hupa, Sinkyone, Yuki, Hill Patwin, Konkow, and Central Sierra Miwok.
2. Condor feathers used in shaman ceremonies: Kato, Coast Yuki, Yuki, and possibly Wailaki.
3. Condor feathers used as part of shamans' costumes: Wiyot and Kato.

D. Condors included in dance cycles and religious ceremonies. - "Within the Kuksu system of north-central California, the California Condor played a significant role. Groups practicing this religion had secret societies in which membership was achieved through a complicated system of formal instruction and complex rites of passage. These societies administered and led cycles of rites and ceremonies during which elaborately costumed members represented various divinities, ghosts, or spirits.. Members of the Kusku societies performed a dance cycle in which animal spirits, including the California Condor, were impersonated. The Coast Yuki; Northern, Central, Southern, Eastern, and Southeastern Pomo; River Patwin; Coast Miwok; Valley Nisenan; and Konkow were among the north-central California cultures performing the condor dance Other Native American groups in this area that possibly did the condor dance were Hill Patwin and Northeastern Pomo."
Quoting Loeb 1926 (Pomo Folkways, University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology 19:3-84-385): The dancer appeared dressed in the entire skin and feathers of the black condor. He had sticks extended along his arms in order to keep up the wings of the bird. The face of the impersonator was completely covered with feathers It was necessary to trap a condor before the impersonation could be given in the trapping, rabbit meat was placed on a bone sharpened at both ends and with a string tied in its center. When the condor swallowed the bait he became trapped, and somebody hit him over the head. The usual method then was to obtain the whole skin of the bird and for the performer to dress in it as described Sometime, probably in recent years, the entire skin was not obtained, and the impersonator merely imitated the appearance of the bird. In this case the costume consisted of a headdress of fiber and buckskin Condor feathers in the form of wings were attached to the arms, and in the form of a tail to the rear of the breech clout."
Simons: "A complete condor feather dancing cape of probable Pomo origin is in a Leningrad museum."
Barrett 1852 (Material aspects of Pomo culture, Bulletin of the Milwaukee City Museum 20) corroborated the Loeb descriptions, and noted that condors were captured with snares and with gorge hooks, were shot with bow and arrow, and were taken from the nest by Pomos.
COMMENT: This summary paper shows that the California condor was well known to many Native American groups in northern California, and held an important place in their rituals, religion and mythology.

70. Smith, F. J. 1916. Occurrence of the Condor in Humboldt County. Condor 18(5):205.
"There is no doubt but that the Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) once occurred in numbers in Humboldt County, California. There are now two mounted specimens in Eureka. One, in the collection of the Public Library, was mounted by Mr. Charles Fiebig, and was secured from a dead spruce tree on the Devoy place, on Kneeland prairie, eighteen miles from Eureka, altitude 2200 feet, in the fall of 1889 or 1890.
"The other bird is in the collection of Dr. Ottemer in Eureka and was mounted by William Rotermund. This specimen was captured near the old Olmstead place on Yager Creek, altitude 1800 feet, about sixty miles east of Eureka, in the fall of 1892.
"Old settlers claim that the Condor was plentiful in early days in the Humboldt region. In my opinion it is now extinct here."
COMMENT: These two condor specimens are the only ones known to have been collected by Europeans in Humboldt County, California. The specimens are still in existence in Eureka, one at Eureka High School and one at Clark Museum.

71. Sullivan, M. S. 1934. The travels of Jedediah Smith, a documentary outline including the journal of the great American pathfinder. Lincoln, Nebraska, University of Nebraska Press.
22 May 1828, near the present-day town of Klamath, Humboldt County, California, Jedediah Smith wrote: "Among the animals I observed in the country was Elk, Black Tailed Deer & Black Bear all of them plenty. Some Raccoons, Large and small wolves, Foxes, Wild Cats, Grey & striped squirrels. The birds are Large
and small Buzards, Crows, Ducks, Ravens, several kinds of hawks, Eagles and a few small birds among which are Robbins & Humming Birds."
COMMENT: In his California journals for 1827 and 1828, Jedediah Smith only included two lists of mammals and birds seen, this one and another from the Sacramento Valley 9 March 1828, in which he includes "Buzzards." The March observation could have been of turkey vultures, but the fact that in May he includes both "large and small buzards," as well as hawks, eagles and ravens makes it pretty certain he was seeing California condors. That he included them so matter-of-factly suggests that the observation was not unusual.

72. Tolmie, W. F. 1963. William Fraser Tolmie, physician and fur trader. Vancouver, British Columbia: Mitchell Press Ltd.
Page 185, journal entry for 21 May 1833, on the Cowlitz River, Washington, not far upstream from its junction with the Columbia: at "yesterday's encampment," "scared some large vultures and crows from their feast"
Page 293, at Ft. McLoughlin, British Columbia, on the mainland north of Vancouver Island, 24 November 1834: "After breakfast went to the lake, coasted it in a canoe.. went into the woods at Western bay & saw some fresh deer tracks in returning, saw on the rock islet 4 swans - tried to land near them but they flew away. What I supposed a large species of vulture at the northern end, along with some white-headed eagles attracted probably by the dead salmon."
COMMENT: The Ft. McLouglin observation has been questioned because it occurred so much farther north than any of the other British Columbia record. Perhaps he didn't know that immature bald eagles didn't have white heads; on the other hand, he contrasted the "vulture" with the "eagle," and noted that this was apparently "a large species of vulture." If he did see a condor, it was likely a vagrant far out of its usual range.

73. Townsend, C. H. 1887. Field-notes on the mammals, birds and reptiles of northern California. Proceedings U. S. Natl.Museum 10:159-241.
1884, a hunter reported killing a condor in southeastern Tehama County, and saw others southwest of Mt. Lassen. "It was once certainly common [in northern California]."
COMMENT: It's unfortunate there are no better dates available for these observations.

74. Townsend, J. K (1848), Popular monograph of the accipitrine birds of
N. A. -- No. II. Literary Record and Journal of the Linnaean Association of Pennsylvania College 4(12): 265-272.
"In my journey across to Rocky Mountains to Oregon in 1834, I kept a sharp look-out for this rare and interesting bird (Californian Vulture) in all situations on the route, which I thought likely to afford a congenial dwelling place; but not one did I see. It was not indeed until my return to the coast in the spring (1835) from the Sandwich Islands, where I spent the winter, that I was gratified by a sight of the great Vulture.
In a journey of exploration which I made to the Willammet, in the month of April, when the river was crowded with Salmon, making their way up against the stream, urged by an abortive instinct to pass the barriers of the thirty feet fall, I observed dozens of Turkey Vultures constantly sailing over the boiling surges, with their bare heads curved downwards as if in search of prey. As I gazed upon them, interested in their graceful and easy motions, I heard a loud rustling sound over my head, which induced me to look upward; and there, to my inexpressible joy, soard the great Californian, seemingly intent upon watching the motions of his puny relatives below. Suddenly, while I watched, I saw him wheel, and down like an arrow he plunged, alighting upon an unfortunate Salmon which had just been cast, exhausted with his attempts to leap the falls, on the shore within a short distance. At that moment I fired, and the poor Vulture fell wounded, beside his still palpitating quarry. My prize being on the opposite side of the river, I lost no time in removing my clothing and plunging into the stream. A few vigorous strokes carried me across; I sprang upon the shore, and ran, with delighted haste, to secure the much coveted and valuable specimen. But I soon discovered that I had still something to do before the operation of skinning him was to commence. The huge creature had been only wing-broken, and as I approached him, seemed determined not to yield himself a willing captive. My gun had been left behind; I was in a state of absolute nudity, and at that moment, the inhabitants of an Indian village near, consisting of men women, children and dogs, startled by the sound of my gun, were flocking out to see what was the matter. I looked about in vain for a stick; none was to be found, and my only weapons were stones, with which I continued, for a considerable time, to pelt the Vulture, who sometimes hobbled awkwardly away, when attacked, and at others dashed furiously at me, hissing like an angry serpent, and compelled me likewise to run. It must have been an amusing scene for the Indians looking on, and I heard more than once, the loud, obstreperous laugh of the women, when the Vulture was flapping after me and I throwing sand in his eyes with my naked feet. After perhaps half an hour spent in this way, I was fortunate enough to hit him fairly on the head with a large stone, which stunned him, and he fell. In an instant I alighted upon him, sitting upon his body; and firmly grasping his neck with my hands. One of the Indians, at my request, brought me a knife, and I soon despatched him by severing the spine. I hired one of the boys to cross the river in a canoe to bring over my clothes and gun, and when dressed, skinned my prize with the Indians crowding around me, curious to see the operation.
This is the only specimen I was ever able to procure; for although, during the spring, I constantly saw the Vultures at all points where the Salmon were cast upon the shore, their extreme shyness uniformly prevented an approach to within gun-shot.
The Californian Vulture has never been seen east of the Rocky Mountains. It is said to be abundant on the coast of California, whence I have recently received two specimens, sent me by Lieut. Col. Fremont, who procured them during his late exploration of that remote country. I have no doubt, it would be found on the N. W. coast of N. America, at least as high up as the Russian Settlements. Its winter residence is unknown, but it is probably in the dreary and inaccessible sierras of Upper California. It is reputed to breed in the Umptqua country, about fifty or sixty miles south of the Oregon Rion,[?] and it is said to lay two eggs, which are entirely black!
The food of this species during its residence in Oregon, seems to consist almost exclusively of fish; but like its cogeners, it is known to be fond of any kind of carrion; and this food probably forms its principal diet, when fish are not to be had.
It is told of this Vulture, as well as of the (South American) Condor, that it frequently pursues sick or wounded Deer and other animals, until they fall from loss of blood and exhaustion, when it digs out the eyes and tongue, and never leaves the carcass, until it has polished the bones. In the settled districts it is also accused of destroying young lambs, pigs, kids, &c.
COMMENT: Although the killing of a condor is highly dramatized in this account, there is no question that he did collect one condor in Oregon. [The location of the specimen is in question, but the original specimen tag still exists in the U. S. National Museum - Reference 4.]
This account separates out Townsend's own observations from some of the information he passed on to Audubon [Reference 3]. He saw condors in the spring, on the lower Willamette River (and on the Columbia?). There is no information here, or in his other records, that indicate the saw them anywhere else or at any other season. His observation of condors feeding on spent salmon appears to be the only first-hand record of this behavior (even though the condor literature is full of such references).

75. Townsend, J. K. 1839. Narrative of a journey across the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River, and a visit to the Sandwich Islands, Chili, &c. Philadelphia: H. Perkins.
COMMENT: Except for its inclusion (without comment) in an appended "Catalogue of Birds found in the Territory of Oregon," the California condor is not mentioned in the book. Not even his adventurous killing of a condor at Willamette Falls [Reference 74] rates telling in what is often a colorful narrative of Townsend's travels. A summary of his itinerary is instructive in identifying where Townsend might have had opportunity to see condors, had there been any in the vicinity.
--6 August 1834 to 3 September 1834, the party was traveling between Fort Hall, Idaho, and Fort Walla Walla
--5-10 September 1834, traveling down the Columbia River from Walla Walla to The Dalles
--10-16 September 1834 on the Columbia River between The Dalles and Fort Vancouver
--16 September 1834 to 2 December 1834, along the Columbia River between Fort Vancouver and Sauvie Island, with a 29 September 1834 trip on the Willamette River to Willamette Falls.
--2-11 December 1834 traveling down the Columbia River to its mouth
--11 December 1834 to 16 April 1835, trip to the Hawaiian Islands
--Late April to late September 1835, mostly on the Columbia River between Sauvie Island and Fort Vancouver, with some side trips on the Willamette
--Late September 1835 to late June 1836, Townsend mostly on the Columbia River in the vicinity of Fort Vancouver
--26 June 1836 to 8 September 1836, up the Columbia River to the Walla Walla area
--8 September 1836 to 30 November 1836, on the lower Columbia River from Fort Vancouver downstream
--December 1836, left for Hawaii and eventually the East Coast.

76. Vaughan, T. 1971. Russian museums: a unique trip by rail. Museum Quart. 7(3):1-7.
Leningrad Museum of Ethology had feather capes made of condor feathers obtained at Fort Ross, Sonoma Co., California. [NOTE: another reference calls location the Museum of Curiosity.]
COMMENT: In a 13 September 1971 letter to Sanford Wilbur, Tom Vaughan wrote: "I have only seen one condor exhibit in the many, many exhibits in Russia. The two I saw are in the Museum of Ethnology in Leningrad The capes came from California in the 19th century."

77. Wallace, W. J., and D. W. Lathrap. 1959. Ceremonial bird burials in San Francisco Bay shellmounds. American Antiquity 25(2):262-264.
A complete condor skeleton was found in a shellmound in Berkeley, Alameda County, California, carbon dated about 2000 B. C. It appeared that the carcass had been purposely buried. The authors suspected that scattered condor bones found in an Emeryville, Alameda County, California, shellmound, were all from a single condor similarly buried.

78. Walsingham, Lord W. 1873. On the distribution of the different species of deer and other ruminants in northern California and Oregon. Proccedings of the Zoological Society of London, pp. 561-563.
COMMENT: Gurney [Reference 35] wrote: "Lord Walsingham has shot vultures a good bit north of Mendocino (northern California), probably the rare Pseudogryphus (Gymnogyps) californianus." I haven't been able to find any of Walsingham's bird records but, if he shot condors, it was probably on the extensive trip that is the subject of this paper. Walsingham left from San Francisco in the spring of 1871, following a route north through Sonoma and Mendocino counties; apparently crossing the Coast Ranges somewhat north of Clear Lake (he mentions Colusa County); up the Sacramento Valley through Tehama and Shasta counties; crossing into Modoc County, through the Klamath Basin, and up the east side of the Cascades; in the Cascades around Diamond Peak; down the Deschutes River to Crooked River, then east over the mountains toward Harney Basin; north to the John Day River and Canyon City (in winter); The Dalles (spring 1872); Portland; south up the Willamette Valley; over the Rogue River Mountains (in June) to Crescent City, California; and ending at Eureka, Humboldt County, California 1 July 1872. If further information turns up, this may help pinpoint times and places he might have seen condors.
Walsingham commented in the paper that his mammal specimens were for the Anatomical Museum at Cambridge, England, which might also have been a depository for any birds he collected. So far, the most recent catalogue I can find for that museum is from 1862.

79. Wilbur, M. E. (editor). 1941. A pioneer at Sutter's Fort, 1846-1850. The adventures of Heinrich Lienhard. Los Angeles: The Calafia Society. 291 pages.
Page 42, along the Sacramento River (probably near Sutter's Fort) in 1846, specific date and location unclear: "I had seen large numbers of vultures, turkey buzzards, ravens, crowns and magpies perched on a sycamore tree nearby."
COMMENT: I think the differentiation between "vultures" [condors] and "turkey buzzards" makes this a valid condor sighting.

80. Wilbur, S. R. 1973. The California condor in the Pacific Northwest. Auk 90(1):196-198.
"The California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus), once found along the Pacific Coast from Baja California to British Columbia, had become very rare north of California by 1850. Koford (1953), summarizing information available on the species in the Pacific Northwest, tentatively concluded that birds seen in that area were wanderers from California, perhaps forced north in some years by food shortages. As support for his theory he noted that there were no records of fossil condors in this northern region, known occurrences there were all in winter, and only a few individuals seemed to be present at any one time.
Recently information has come to light that suggests the Pacific Northwest condors were permanent residents with a long history there. An Indian midden on the Columbia River near The Dalles, Oregon, has yielded a considerable number of California Condor bones, dating back thousands of years (Miller, 1957). A more recent, but still precaucasian condor bone was found in another midden in southwestern Oregon (Miller, 1942). These finds indicate the condors are not recent invaders from California.
Most records of condors on the lower Columbia River are in the period October to May, but condors were present at other times of year. A specimen taken in the Columbia River area in 1825 was probably collected in late summer (Scouler, 1905). Elsewhere condors were observed in the Umpqua River area of Oregon from March through October (Finley, 1908; Douglas, 1914; Peale, 1957), and in southern British Columbia in September and November (Macoun and Macoun, 1909; Tolmie, 1963). Information is biased by the small number of reports, and probably by seasonal travel patterns of observers, but it indicates both yearlong residency in the Pacific Northwest and a fairly definite movement to the Columbia in fall and away in spring. No condor nests were ever found in Oregon, Washington or British Columbia, but this may be because few people visited the more rugged portions of this region prior to the species' disappearance.
Nonbreeding condors now wander considerable distances but have a tendency to move toward the breeding grounds in winter (Wilbur, MS). Records from the Pacific Northwest indicate condors may have been as plentiful in winter as at any time of year. Also, seasonal movements in recent years have taken condors only 150-200 miles from nesting areas. Condors were nesting farther north in the 1800s than today, but it would still have been a 400-600 mile journey from central California breeding areas to Oregon, Washington, or British Columbia.
Scarcity of food might have furnished incentive for long distance flights, but all indications are that food was much more abundant year-round in California than it would have been in the Pacific Northwest at any season. Pronghorn, elk, and deer were plentiful in California until after 1840 (Burcham, 1957). Addition of the first cattle, sheep, and horses around 1820 swelled the potential food supply (Koford, 1953; McCullough, 1969). Although there are no records of condors feeding on salmon in California, sizeable salmon runs continued in northern and central California streams until at least 1850 (Skinner, 1962). The seacoast was relatively unsettled and probably offered considerable food at times. Large reductions in native game or livestock did not occur in California until after 1840. By that time condors were already rare in the Pacific Northwest.
We see evidence today of discrete subpopulations of California Condors that each have specific nesting and foraging areas and seldom mix with members of other groups (Wilbur, MS). The situation in Monterey County, California, supports this theory. At one time it was a major condor use area (Koford, 1953), but the breeding population was apparently exterminated by egg and skin collectors. Although portions of the county still appear to be good condor habitat and condors are breeding a short distance to the southeast no known nesting has occurred since about 1902 and condors are seldom reported there in any season. The situation in San Diego and Orange counties in California is similar. The birds in the Pacific Northwest may also have been members of an isolated population that suffered from human exploitation. Such exploitation occurred between 1805 and 1850, during which time at least 13 condors were killed (Douglas, 1828; Fleming,1924; Putnam, 1928; Koford, 1953; Burroughs, 1961).
Condors are hampered by an extremely low reproductive rate, laying only one egg per clutch, not always laying in consecutive years, and not reaching breeding capability until at least 6 years of age. Because it has a very low natural mortality rate and a long lifespan, the condor has been able to survive with low productivity. However recovery from any population reduction is likely to be very slow and difficult. If the Pacific Northwest population was a discrete one of only two or three dozen individuals (Koford, 1953), the known mortality in the early 1800s would have been enough to jeopardize it seriously. If, as seems likely, more were killed than are recorded in the literature, gunfire alone could have reduced the population to a level from which it could not recover. A very few old birds could have survived in the area until the early 1900s.
COMMENT: Additional information has come to light in the past 35 years that allows me to refine this analysis, but the data, conclusions and rationale, in general, still hold.

81. Wilbur, S. R. 1978. The California condor, 1966-76: a look at its past and future. North American Fauna 72:1-136.
COMMENT: This publication includes discussion of the disappearance of condors from the Pacific Northwest [as in Reference 80], an annotated bibliography of all condor-related literature found to that date, and a list of all documented losses of California condors and their eggs.

82. Wilbur, S. R. 2004. Condor Tales: What I Learned in Twelve Years with the Big Birds. Gresham, Oregon: Symbios. 400 pages.
Chapters 32 and 33 (pp. 229-240) include my hypothesis on the former status of California condors in the Pacific Northwest. In part:
"Here's my view of how condor distribution looked from the end of the Pleistocene until the early 1800s. Condors were resident from the Sierra San Pedro Martir in Baja California north in the coastal mountains at least to the Columbia River, maybe a little farther. There were also condors resident in the hills east of the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys, north to perhaps the latitude of Sacramento, and maybe to Marysville or Chico. Within this total range, subgroups of condors occurred where suitable nesting and foraging habitat existed together. Condors in each of these subgroups 'homed' to their specific nesting areas, with their seasonal wandering taking them no more than 150 or 200 miles from 'home base.' No condor in Oregon ever met a condor from Mexico, but there was undoubtedly regular interchange between the nearest neighbor groups (probably in foraging areas seasonally populated by two or more groups, as occurred in the 20th Century). Tenacity to a home nesting habitat gave cohesiveness to the subgroup, and for much of the year isolated its members from other condors. However, the seasonal mixing of subgroups improved the chances of new pair formation, and likely helped maintain diversity in the gene pool of each group."

83. Yocom, C. F., and S. W. Harris. 1975. Status, habitats, and distribution of birds of northwestern California. Arcata, California: self-published.
Page 27, California Condor: Extirpated from this area. Records from the area include a bird collected on Kneeland Prairie, Humboldt County, in the fall of 1889 or 1890, and a specimen taken on Yager Creek, sixty miles east of Eureka in the fall of 1892 (Smith 1916, Koford 1953). Two mounted specimens in the Clarke Museum, Eureka, California, may be the two birds mentioned above.
COMMENT: One of these remains at Clarke Museum; the other is at Eureka High School.